• Journal of the Korean Home Economics Association
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• v.8 no.1
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• pp.198-215
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• 1970

The basic purpose of this study is to explore the household economic effects on home administration. The major goals of home administration is to promote mental and physical welfare of the family members. In order to realize mental and physical welfare, the stability and satisfaction is needed. And to promote stability and satisfaction, the efficiency must be accomplished and the efforts is required. So the four variables to measure home administration situation are as follows. 1) The degree of the stability 2) The degree of the efficiency 3) The degree of the efforts 4) The degree of the satisfaction. The factor of Household economic level is the size of the family's money income. Although size of income is not the bases for either standard of living or Socioeconomic status, it is closely related to both. To solve this problem. Some hypotheses are specified as follows. Hypotheses I The degree of the stability is different among the groups by income level. The group which is high income level will be more stable than low income level. Hypothesis II The degree of the efficiencies different among the groups by income level. The group which is high income level will be more efficient than low income level. Hypothesis III The degree of the efforts is different among the groups by income level. The group which is high income level will more effort than low income level. Hypothesis IV The degree of the satisfaction is different among the groups by income level. The group which is high income level will feel more satisfaction than low income level. In order to test those hypotheses random selection of 190 subjects from the four girls high schools in Seoul was made, and the parents of the students reported their home administration situation. The results of this study show that; 1) the group which is high income level revealed more stability than low income level. The differences of each group are revealed very significant. 2) The differences of the degree of the efficiency among the groups are unsignificant. 3) the group which is high income level revealed more effort than low income level. The differences of each group are revealed significant. 4) The group which is high income level revealed more satisfaction than low income level. The differences of each group are particularly significant. So the conclusion can be drawn from this study. Every group by income level revealed significant differences in home administration. So the household economy greatly effects on home administration.

• Asia Marketing Journal
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• v.23 no.1
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• pp.29-62
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• 2021

The current research develops and tests the theory that beliefs in economic mobility are affected by social capital at the community level, especially for low-income individuals. Integrating concepts from social capital and perceived economic mobility (PEM), this research hypothesizes that members of disadvantaged groups (vs. members of advantaged groups) are more likely to adjust their PEM depending on the social capital at the community level. Using archival data, multilevel analysis is employed to examine whether individual- or community-level social capital increases PEM and the extent to which income moderates this relationship. Consistent with our hypotheses, social capital at the community level is significantly associated with PEM and this relationship is stronger for low-income (vs. high-income) earners. Study 1 shows that individuals in communities with high levels of social relations and participation are more likely to have higher PEM than those in communities with lower levels. Study 2 replicates this finding with a similar dependent variable: negative prospects. Further, the PEM-enhancing and negative prospects-decreasing effects of community-level social capital are consistently stronger for low-income (vs. high-income) earners. This study extends the investigation of PEM and social capital by suggesting social capital as a possible antecedent of PEM.

• Journal of the Korean Home Economics Association
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• v.50 no.4
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• pp.37-50
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• 2012

This research was conducted for the analysis the middle-old aged empty nest households' debt holdings and their financial status(emergency fund index, liquidity index, debt burden index) considering the level of income and assets. In order to accomplish this study, we made use of the KReIS third beta-version data. The results of the analysis were as follows. First, in all income asset groups there were more non-debts holding houses compared to debt holding houses. Moreover in debts holding houses, compared to other groups high income high assets groups were more. Second, the households that possessed more assets, had more debts. Third, the financial status of the households holding debts were more vulnerable compared to households that had no debts. Moreover, all income asset groups' emergency fund index were low. Households having no debts possessed low real assets and so the liquidity index was higher in holding debts households. In holding debts households, debt burden index was high. And especially these houses suffered from high debt burden when their income and asset were low.

• Korean journal of food and cookery science
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• v.7 no.2
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• pp.51-74
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• 1991

It has been many changes in traditional Korean food habits according to the improvement of household income levels and the rise of standard of living. Therefore, the pattern of consumption in animal origin processed/convenient foods would have changed. This research aims to find the tendency of consumption in some animal origin processed/convenient foods compared with typical Korean traditional foods according to household income levels. Therefore, this survey was made on 698 children from 10 elementary schools located in Seoul. They were divided into 6 groups according to their household income levels. The data were analysed using Chi-square test and F-test in SPSS package program. From this research, the following results were obtained: 1. Their average monthly household income levels were between 500, 000~1, 500, 000 won(64.2%) and their family were of mostly 4~5 members. There were no significant differences in children's physical status among various income groups. As the household. income level increases, the food expenditure per month increases and Engel's coefficient decreases. 2. The animal origin processed/convenient foods that have no significant differences are ham, sausage, milk, yogurt, canned fish, and fish meal. The high-income groups preferred bacon, cheese, pork cutlet, and fried chicken, compared to those of low-income groups. The low-income groups preferred crab-flavored meal, compared to those of high-income groups. 3. In some Korean traditional foods, there were significant differences according to income levels. Those were Bulgogi, baked fish, fried meat, cooked fish and meat with soy-bean sauce. Fried fish and anchovy have no significant differences in food intake frequency according to household income levels. Chicken and egg saute are liked by children in every income groups. 4. Between the animal origin processed/convenient foods and the typical Korean nonprocessed traditional foods, children preferred the former regardless of income levels. In conclusion, animal origin processed/convenient food consumption patterns were not affected by household income levels.

• Korean Journal of Community Nutrition
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• v.17 no.4
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• pp.463-478
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• 2012

This study investigated the health and nutritional characteristics according to household income level and obesity in Koreans aged over 50 years based on the 2005 National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey. Subjects were classified into 3 groups by average household income with reference to the minimum monthly living expenses (MLE): low (n = 319, < 100% MLE), middle (n = 222, < 200% MLE), high (n = 411, ${\geq}$ 200% MLE) and each group was compared by BMI index. With increasing income level, the prevalence of systolic hypertension and hyperlipidemia was increased. In the low income group, serum total cholesterol, triglycerides, and fasting glucose were higher in the obese compared with the normal. In the middle and high income groups, the prevalence of hyperlipidemia and diastolic hypertension were higher in the obese. Subjects had nutritional imbalance, such as inadequate intake of calcium and potassium. With increasing income level, the percentages of protein and fat to total calorie were increased in addition to the intakes and density of nutrients. The obese in the low income group had higher intakes of energy, protein, phosphorus and higher consumption frequency of cereals and potatoes compared with the normal. It was shown that the obese of the middle and high income groups tended to have lower consumption frequency of Korean cabbage and higher frequency of fruits. The obese of high income group also had binge drinking habit. Therefore, this study suggests that specific approaches based on economic status should be considered in developing nutrition education program for the elderly.

• Journal of Preventive Medicine and Public Health
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• v.47 no.2
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• pp.104-112
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• 2014

Objectives: To date, studies have not comprehensively demonstrated the relationship between stroke incidence and socioeconomic status. This study investigated stroke incidence by household income level in conjunction with age, sex, and stroke subtype in Korea. Methods: Contributions by the head of household were used as the basis for income levels. Household income levels for 21 766 036 people were classified into 6 groups. The stroke incidences were calculated by household income level, both overall within income categories and further by age group, sex, and stroke subtype. To present the inequalities among the six ranked groups in a single value, the slope index of inequality and relative index of inequality were calculated. Results: In 2005, 57 690 people were first-time stroke patients. The incidences of total stroke for males and females increased as the income level decreased. The incidences of stroke increased as the income level decreased in those 74 years old and under, whereas there was no difference by income levels in those 75 and over. Intracerebral hemorrhage for the males represented the highest inequality among stroke subtypes. Incidences of subarachnoid hemorrhage did not differ by income levels. Conclusions: The incidence of stroke increases as the income level decreases, but it differs according to sex, age, and stroke subtype. The difference in the relative incidence is large for male intracerebral hemorrhage, whereas the difference in the absolute incidence is large for male ischemic stroke.

• 한국노년학
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• v.39 no.1
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• pp.169-188
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• 2019

In this study, the author utilizes longitudinal data of the recent 12 years to verify whether the absolute versus relative income of old age has a significant effect on their life satisfaction of life. The findings of this study show that there is a significant difference in life satisfaction of old age according to respondents' relative income of three reference groups based on their asset quintile and residental area and education. In the correlation analysis using the cross-sectional data, the absolute and relative income level was closely related to the life satisfaction. In the panel regression analysis using the 12 years longitudinal data from the Korea National Labour Panel dataset, the income level of counterparts in those reference groups appeared highly significant in determining the level of life satisfaction of the elderly. However, some demographic variables such as age and marital status did not have a statistically significant effect in the long-term perspective. The income of reference groups in terms of asset levels, education and region as well as their own past life satisfaction level had a significant effect on the elders' life satisfaction determination. These results suggest that the relative income hypothesis in terms of life satisfaction among the elderly is more valid than the previous absolute income hypothesis.

• Health Policy and Management
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• v.18 no.4
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• pp.23-48
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• 2008

Although the universal health insurance, National Health Insurance (NHI), have improved access to health care and financial burden of health care costs for Koreans, limited coverage of the NHI leads to high out-of-pocket payment for health care. This study examines financial burden of household health expenditures by income level. Data from the Urban Household Expenditure Survey from 1985 through 2005 is analyzed and household expenditure is used as a proxy measure for income. Health expenditures include spending for inpatient care, ambulatory care and pharmaceuticals. If a household spends health expenditure above 40% of household consumption except for foods, that is defined as catastrophic health expenditure. Access to health care for the lowest income group had been improved for two decades relative to other income groups as well as in absolute term. However, both financial burden of health expenditures and the proportion of households that experienced catastrophic health expenditure had been increased in the lowest income group. Study findings have several policy implications. First, in terms of financial burden of health expenditures. the differences among income groups decreased until 2000 but it was worsen in 2005. This suggests that recent policies for extending NHI coverage are not enough to improve the disparity by income level. Second, a differential catastrophic coverage by income level would be an effective strategy that relieves financial burden for low income group. Third, since the catastrophic coverage is applied to only covered services by the NHI, additional strategy for uncovered services should be considered.

• Journal of Nutrition and Health
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• v.27 no.3
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• pp.272-280
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• 1994

The weaning practice of infants from 5 to 12 months of age in the area of Chunchon, Kangwon-do was studied. Subjects were divided into 2 groups depending on residential area, monthly family income and mother's educational level. Parents of group 1 (n=90) received higher education and more monthly family income than those of group 2(n=32). The family income was significantly higher in group 1 than in group 2. Mother's educational level has been markedly improved over 10 years, which affected the feeding methods before weaning in both groups(P<0.05). Group 1 appeared to be bottle-fed. Bottle-and mixed-feeding were mainly due to lack of breast milk. 95.6% of group 1 and 71.9% of group 2 started weaning before the age of 6 months and only 16.4% were completely finished regardless of the groups. Commercially prepared foods were used more than home-made for first given-supplementary food. 82.2% of group 1 received fruits and 84.4% of group 2 cookies/crackers as their main supplementary foods. As the motivation of onset of weaning, 'for baby's health and nutritional status' was the most common. These results demonstrate that there are distinct differences between these 2 groups in 1) the feeding methods prior to weaning, 2) time of onset of weaning, and 3) main supplementary foods, influenced by mother's educational level, economic purchasing power, or subjects birth order.

• The Korean Journal of Food And Nutrition
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• v.27 no.4
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• pp.660-672
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• 2014

The purpose of this study was to evaluate dietary habit and nutritional status by household income in female adults, using data from the $4^{th}$ Korea National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (2007~2009). Subjects were 8,356 women over the age of 20 years. The subjects were classified into 4 groups by household income level. Dietary data from 24 hr recall methods were used to analyze nutritional status. The obesity rate of the low income group was significantly higher than the rates of other income groups. Additionally, the nutritional status of the low income group was worse than those of other groups. The percentage of carbohydrate in total energy intake was higher and food security status was lower in the low income group than in other groups. Awareness and adherence to dietary guidelines were also lower in the low income group. Adherence to a dietary guideline of 'avoiding salty foods and trying to eat foods with bland taste' and 'eating a variety of foods from each food group' were lower than those of other groups. However, the frequency of skipping breakfast among the low income group was lower than that of others. Therefore, this study suggested that low income women should decrease the percentage of carbohydrate in total energy intake and adhere to dietary guidelines, especially those of avoiding salty foods and eating a variety of food groups, in order to improve their nutritional status.