• ALGAE
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• 제31권1호
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• pp.17-31
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• 2016

To explore the feeding ecology of the newly described heterotrophic dinoflagellate Aduncodinium glandula in the family Pfiesteriaceae, its feeding behavior and prey species were investigated. Additionally, the growth and ingestion rates of A. glandula on the mixotrophic dinoflagellates Heterocapsa triquetra and Akashiwo sanguinea, its optimal and suboptimal prey, respectively were measured. A. glandula fed on prey through a peduncle after anchoring to the prey using a tow filament. A. glandula ate all algal prey and perch blood cells tested and had the most diverse prey species in the family Pfiesteriaceae. Unlike for other pfiesteriacean species, H. triquetra and A. sanguinea support the positive growth of A. glandula. However, the cryptophytes Rhodomonas salina and Teleaulax sp. and the phototrophic dinoflagellate Amphidinium carterae did not support the positive growth of A. glandula. Thus, A. glandula may have a unique kind of prey and its optimal prey differs from that of the other pfiesteriacean dinoflagellates. With increasing mean prey concentration, the growth rates of A. glandula on H. triquetra and A. sanguinea increased rapidly and then slowed or became saturated. The maximum growth rates when feeding on H. triquetra and A. sanguinea were 1.004 and 0.567 d⁻¹, respectively. Further, the maximum ingestion rates of A. glandula on H. triquetra and A. sanguinea were 0.75 and 1.38 ng C predator⁻¹ d⁻¹, respectively. There is no other pfiesteriacean species having H. triquetra and A. sanguinea as optimal and suboptimal prey. Thus, A. glandula may be abundant during blooms dominated by these species not preferred by the other pfiesteriacean dinoflagellates.

• ALGAE
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• 제39권1호
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• pp.1-16
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• 2024

Many dinoflagellates produce bioluminescence. To estimate the intensity of bioluminescence produced by populations of the heterotrophic dinoflagellates Noctiluca scintillans and Polykrikos kofoidii and autotrophic dinoflagellate Alexandrium mediterraneum in Korean waters, we measured cellular bioluminescence intensity as a function of water temperature and calculated population bioluminescence intensity with cell abundances and water temperature. The mean 200-second-integrated bioluminescence intensity per cell (BL_cell) of N. scintillans satiated with the chlorophyte Dunaliella salina decreased continuously with increasing water temperature from 5 to 25℃. However, the BL_cell of P. kofoidii satiated with the mixotrophic dinoflagellate Alexandrium minutum continuously increased from 5 to 15℃ but decreased at temperatures exceeding this (to 30℃). Similarly, the BL_cell of A. mediterraneum continuously increased from 10 to 20℃ but decreased between 20 and 30℃. The difference between highest and lowest BL_cell of N. scintillans, P. kofoidii, and A. mediterraneum at the tested water temperatures was 3.5, 11.8, and 21.0 times, respectively, indicating that water temperature clearly affected BL_cell. The highest estimated population bioluminescence intensity (BL_popul) of N. scintillans in Korean waters in 1998-2022 was 4.22 × 10¹³ relative light unit per liter (RLU L^-1), which was 1,850 and 554,000 times greater than that of P. kofoidii and A. mediterraneum, respectively. This indicates that N. scintillans populations produced much brighter bioluminescence in Korean waters than the populations of P. kofoidii or A. mediterraneum.

• ALGAE
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• 제38권2호
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• pp.111-126
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• 2023

Mixotrophic dinoflagellates act as primary producers, prey, and predators in marine planktonic food webs, whereas exclusively autotrophic dinoflagellates are primary producers and prey. Species of the dinoflagellate genus Scrippsiella are commonly found in marine ecosystems and sometimes cause harmful red tides. Among the 28 formally described Scrippsiella species, S. acuminata has been found to be mixotrophic and two unidentified species have been found to be mixotrophic. To determine whether the other species in this genus are similarly mixotrophic, the mixotrophic ability of S. donghaiensis SDGJ1703, S. lachrymosa SLBS1703, S. masanensis SSMS0908, S. plana SSSH1009A, and S. ramonii VGO1053 was explored using 15 potential prey items, including 2-㎛ fluorescently labeled microspheres (FLM) and heterotrophic bacteria (FLB), the cyanobacterium Synechococcus sp., and various microalgal prey species. The ability of S. acuminata to feed on FLM and FLB was also investigated. We found that S. donghaiensis, S. lachrymosa, S. masanensis, S. plana, and S. ramonii did not feed on any potential prey tested in this study, indicating a lack of mixotrophy. However, S. acuminata fed on both FLM and FLB, confirming its mixotrophic ability. These results lowered the proportion of mixotrophic species relative to the total number of tested Scrippsiella species for mixotrophy from 100% to 29-38%. Owing to its mixotrophic ability, S. acuminata occupies an ecological niche that is distinct from that of S. donghaiensis, S. lachrymosa, S. masanensis, S. plana, and S. ramonii.

• Ocean and Polar Research
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• 제25권3호
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• pp.303-314
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• 2003

The initiation of Cochlodinium polykrikoides blooming in the South Sea of Korea occurs in the sea near Naro-Do in late August. In this paper, the relationships of this annual occurrence with the environmental conditions are presented. In early summer, the winds in the sea near Naro-Do are southwesterly and the upwelling occurs in the near-shore area. The favorable winds to the upwelling are relaxed in August and the downwelling favorable northeasterly winds set in around late August. The change of wind direction causes the onshore transport of warm-and-fresh off-shore water into the sea near Naro-Do and a front between near-shore water and off·shore water is formed. Along the front, downwelling occurs and the environmental conditions for the diatom become unfavorable. When the typhoon and storm bring well-mixed East China Sea water into the sea near Naro-Do in September, the conditions for the dinoflagellates become unfavorable and blooming of C. polykrikoides disappears.

• 한국해양학회지:바다
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• 제5권1호
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• pp.37-46
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• 2000

1995년 이후 해마다 8월부터 10월까지 남해안에서 대규모로 발생되는 유해성 적조가 가장 먼저 발견되는 전남 고흥군 나로도 해역에서 적조원인생물을 포함한 식물플랑크톤의 포식자로써 적조역학(red tide dynamics)에 큰 영향을 줄 수 있는 종속영양성 와편모류(heterotraphic dinoflagellate; 이하 HTD)와 섬모류의 시공간적 분포를 연구하기 위하여, 1997년 6월 20일부터 9월 22일까지 모두 5차례에 걸쳐 3개의 정점, 5${\sim}$7개의 깊이에서 시료를 채집한 뒤 분석하였다. 연구기간 동안 총 17종의 HTD가 발견되었는데 그 중 Protoperidinium 속에 속하는 종이 11종으로 65% 정도를 차지하였다. 섬모류의 경우 종피류(tintinnid; 이하 TIN)가 총 15종 출현하였으며, 다수의 무피성 섬모류(naked ciliate; 이하 NC)가 출현하였다. 출현 종 수의 시간적 변화를 볼 때 HTD와 TIN모두 8월 1일과 21일 사이에 가장 많이 증가하였으나 최대 출현종 수는 Gyrodinium impudicum이 우점한 유해성 적조가발생한 직후인 8월 27일에 나타났는데 각각 13종과 10종이었다. 9월 22일에는 출현종 수가 급감하였다. 연구기간 중 나타난 HTD, TIN, NC의 최대 밀도는 각각 45, 39, 57 cells $ml^{-1}$었다. 한 시기에 채집한 모든 시료의 평균밀도(Average Density at All Station; 이하 ADAS)를 구한 결과 HTD의 ADAS는 출현종 수와 마찬가지로 8월 1일과 21일 사이에 가장 큰 폭으로 증가하다가 8월 27일에 약 6 cells $ml^{-1}$의 최대값에 도달하였으나, TIN의 ADAS는 8월 21일과 8월 27일 사이에 급증하여 최대값 7 cells $ml^{-1}$에 도달하였다. NC의 ADAS는 HTD나 TIN처럼 뚜렷한 시간적 변화를 나타내지 않았으나 8월 27일에 최대값 8 cells $ml^{-1}$을 나타냈다. 이러한 출현 종수와 평균밀도의 증가율을 볼 때 HTD의 경우 규조류의 변화 양상과 비슷하여 HTD가 규조류의 포식자일 가능성을 제시할 수 있는데, 특히 8월 27일의 경우 Protoperidinium 속의 수평, 수직적 분포는 규조류의 분포와 높은 상관관계를 가져 이들이 규조류의 주요 포식자임을 유추할 수 있다. 공간적 분포에 있어서 일반적으로 HTD와 섬모류 모두 내만에서 높은 값을 가졌으며 외만으로 갈수록 감소하였으므로, 본 연구는 HTD와 섬모류의 시공간적분포가 연안으로부터의 거리 및 먹이인 식물플랑크톤의 시공간적 분포와 밀접한 관계를 갖고 있음을 제시할 수 있고, 본 연구결과는 앞으로 주요 원생동물들의 적조원인생물을 포함한 우점 식물플랑크톤에 대한 포식실험의 기초자료로 이용되어 적조발생시와 발생 전후의 하부 먹이망을 완성하는데 기여될 것이다.

• ALGAE
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• 제34권4호
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• pp.289-301
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• 2019

Mixotrophy in marine organisms is an important aspect of ecology and evolution. The discovery of mixotrophic abilities in phototrophic dinoflagellates alters our understanding of the dynamics of red tides. In the phototrophic dinoflagellate genus Alexandrium, some species are mixotrophic, but others are exclusively autotrophic. There are differences in the ecological roles of autotrophic and mixotrophic Alexandrium in marine food webs. However, of the 34 known Alexandrium species, the mixotrophic ability of >20 species has yet to be explored. In this study, the mixotrophic capabilities of Alexandrium insuetum CCMP2082, Alexandrium mediterraneum CCMP3433, Alexandrium pacificum CCMP3434, Alexandrium tamutum ATSH1609, and Alexandrium margalefii CAWD10 were investigated by providing each species with 22 diverse prey items including bacterium-sized microbeads (1 ㎛), the cyanobacterium Synechococcus sp., algal prey species, and the ciliate Mesodinium rubrum. None of the 5 Alexandrium species fed on any of the prey items. These results increase the number of Alexandrium species lacking mixotrophic abilities to 9, compared to the 7 known mixotrophic Alexandrium species. Furthermore, the Alexandrium phylogenetic tree based on the large subunit ribosomal DNA contained 3 large clades, each of which had species with and without mixotrophic abilities. Thus, the acquisition or loss of mixotrophic abilities in Alexandrium might readily occur.

• 한국환경과학회지
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• 제12권7호
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• pp.725-733
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• 2003

문헌 32편에서 조사된 출현종수는 최저 43종에서 최고 200종까지 기록되고, 그 중에서 주요종수는 최저 2종에서 최고 27종까지로 종수의 기록에 상당한 차이를 보였다. 본 조사에서 기록한 주요종의 목록은 모두 50속 116종이었고, 규조류 34속 89종(76.6%), 와편모조류 11속 22종(18.9%), 황갈색조류 2속 2종(1.7%), 남조류, 라피도조류, 유글레나조류가 각각 1속 1종(0.9%)이었다. 생태적 특성을 반영하는 주요 종으로는 우점종이 Actinoptychus seranius를 비롯하여 79종, 출현빈번종이 Coscinodiscus centralis를 비롯하여 50종, 적조원인종이 Cochlodinium polykrikoides를 비롯한 36종이었다. 또한 3가지의 주요 특성을 모두 지닌 종은 Prorocentrum micans를 비롯한 11종이었다. 여러 문헌에서 주요종으로 언급했던 종은 규조류인 Skeletonema costatum이었고 단일 속(genus)으로서 18종의 많은 종이 조사된 속은 Chaetoceros속이었다.

• ALGAE
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• 제38권1호
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• pp.39-55
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• 2023

Exploring mixotrophy of dinoflagellate species is critical to understanding red-tide dynamics and dinoflagellate evolution. Some species in the dinoflagellate genus Karenia have caused harmful algal blooms. Among 10 Karenia species, the mixotrophic ability of only two species, Karenia mikimotoi and Karenia brevis, has been investigated. These species have been revealed to be mixotrophic; however, the mixotrophy of the other species should be explored. Moreover, although K. mikimotoi was previously known to be mixotrophic, only a few potential prey species have been tested. We explored the mixotrophic ability of Karenia bicuneiformis, Karenia papilionacea, and Karenia selliformis and the prey spectrum of K. mikimotoi by incubating them with 16 potential prey species, including a cyanobacterium, diatom, prymnesiophyte, prasinophyte, raphidophyte, cryptophytes, and dinoflagellates. Cells of K. bicuneiformis, K. papilionacea, and K. selliformis did not feed on any tested potential prey species, indicating a lack of mixotrophy. The present study newly discovered that K. mikimotoi was able to feed on the common cryptophyte Teleaulax amphioxeia. The phylogenetic tree based on the large subunit ribosomal DNA showed that the mixotrophic species K. mikimotoi and K. brevis belonged to the same clade, but K. bicuneiformis, K. papilionacea, and K. selliformis were divided into different clades. Therefore, the presence or lack of a mixotrophic ability in this genus may be partially related to genetic characterizations. The results of this study suggest that Karenia species are not all mixotrophic, varying from the results of previous studies.

• 환경생물
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• 제17권3호
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• pp.271-278
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• 1999

본 연구는 1998년 7월부터 9월까지 득량만 19개 정점 표층에서 수질, 식물플랑크톤 군집의 구조와 동태 및 적조의 특징을 규명하였다. 조사기간 중 월별 평균 수온은 24.0~28.6$^{\circ}C$, 염분은 25.0~28.6$\textperthousand$로 월별 및 정점간 변이가 컸다. 본 해역의 Chlorophyll-$\alpha$의 농도는 7월과 8월에 평균 11.59mg/m$^3$, 7.52mg/m$^3$를 나타내어 일차생산이 높았으며, 9월의 수질은 부영양화 단계에 있었다. 조사기간 중 출현한 식물플랑크톤군집은 돌말류가 89종류, 와편모조류가 19종류, 규질편모조류가 3종류 등 총 111분류군이었다. 식물플랑크톤 현존량은 최저 1.3$\times$$10^4$cells/ι(9월, 정점 17)에서 최고 3.8$\times$$10^{6}$cells/ι(7월, 정점 10)까지 변화하였다. 7월에는 거의 전 해역에서 황갈색의 적조가 발생되었고, 평균 현존량 1.8$\times$$10^{6}$cells/ι을 보였으며 이때 적조원인종은 Prorocentrum minimum, Chaetoceros curvisetus, Ceratium furca, Thalassiosira sp. 등이었으며, 만의 상부에서는 p. minimum, 만의 중앙부와 만 입구에서는 ch. curvisetus, 녹동항 주변에서는 c. furca와 Thalassiosira sp.에 의해 적조가 각각 발생되었다. 본 해역에서 질소와 같은 영양염류의 분포는 만의 상부와 녹동항 주변에서 높았고, 적조발생시 수온 23.8~29.7$^{\circ}C$ 그리고 염분 23.1~27.0$\textperthousand$였다.

• ALGAE
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• 제34권3호
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• pp.237-251
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• 2019

The dinoflagellate genus Alexandrium is known to often form harmful algal blooms causing human illness and large-scale mortality of marine organisms. Therefore, the population dynamics of Alexandrium species are of primary concern to scientists and aquaculture farmers. The growth rate of the Alexandrium species is the most important parameter in prediction models and nutrient conditions are critical parameters affecting the growth of phototrophic species. In Korean coastal waters, Alexandrium affine and Alexandrium fraterculus, of similar sizes, often form red-tide patches together. Thus, to understand bloom dynamics of A. affine and A. fraterculus, growth rates and nitrate uptake of each species as a function of nitrate ($NO_3$) concentration at $100{\mu}mol\;photons\;m^{-2}s^{-1}$ under 14-h light : 10-h dark and continuous light conditions were determined using a nutrient repletion method. With increasing $NO_3$ concentration, growth rates and $NO_3$ uptake of A. affine or A. fraterculus increased, but became saturated. Under light : dark conditions, the maximum growth rates of A. affine and A. fraterculus were 0.45 and $0.42d^{-1}$, respectively. However, under continuous light conditions, the maximum growth rate of A. affine slightly increased to $0.46d^{-1}$, but that of A. fraterculus largely decreased. Furthermore, the maximum nitrate uptake of A. affine and A. fraterculus under light : dark conditions were 12.9 and $30.1pM\;cell^{-1}d^{-1}$, respectively. The maximum nitrate uptake of A. affine under continuous light conditions was $16.4pM\;cell^{-1}d^{-1}$. Thus, A. affine and A. fraterculus have similar maximum growth rates at the given $NO_3$ concentration ranges, but they have different maximum nitrate uptake rates. A. affine may have a higher conversion rate of $NO_3$ to body nitrogen than A. fraterculus. Moreover, a longer exposure time to the light may confer an advantage to A. affine over A. fraterculus.