• Mycobiology
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• v.42 no.4
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• pp.368-375
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• 2014

Red ginseng (Panax ginseng), a Korean traditional medicinal plant, contains a variety of ginsenosides as major functional components. It is necessary to remove sugar moieties from the major ginsenosides, which have a lower absorption rate into the intestine, to obtain the aglycone form. To screen for microorganisms showing bioconversion activity for ginsenosides from red ginseng, 50 yeast strains were isolated from Korean traditional meju (a starter culture made with soybean and wheat flour for the fermentation of soybean paste). Twenty strains in which a black zone formed around the colony on esculin-yeast malt agar plates were screened first, and among them 5 strains having high ${\beta}$-glucosidase activity on p-nitrophenyl-${\beta}$-D-glucopyranoside as a substrate were then selected. Strain JNO301 was finally chosen as a bioconverting strain in this study on the basis of its high bioconversion activity for red ginseng extract as determined by thin-layer chromatography (TLC) analysis. The selected bioconversion strain was identified as Candida allociferrii JNO301 based on the nucleotide sequence analysis of the 18S rRNA gene. The optimum temperature and pH for the cell growth were $20{\sim}30^{\circ}C$ and pH 5~8, respectively. TLC analysis confirmed that C. allociferrii JNO301 converted ginsenoside Rb1 into Rd and then into F2, Rb2 into compound O, Rc into compound Mc1, and Rf into Rh1. Quantitative analysis using high-performance liquid chromatography showed that bioconversion of red ginseng extract resulted in an increase of 2.73, 3.32, 33.87, 16, and 5.48 fold in the concentration of Rd, F2, compound O, compound Mc1, and Rh1, respectively.

• Journal of Physiology & Pathology in Korean Medicine
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• v.20 no.5
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• pp.1321-1326
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• 2006

Total ginsenosides were purified and their antioxidant, antibacterial and anticancer activities were measured. The crude extracts of ginseng, which were extracted with 75% ethanol by ultrasonification method, were firstly purified on AB-8 macroporous adsorption column to remove water soluble impurities, and decolored on Amberlite IRA 900 Cl anion-exchange column. Then, they were purified on Amberlite XAD16 adsorption column to delete the non-polar impurities. Total ginsenosides contents of the purified extracts were 79.4%, 71.7% and 72.5% in cultured wild ginseng, red ginseng and white ginseng, which were significantly increased than those of crude extracts. All of the three extracts showed concentration-dependant scavenging activities against DPPH radicals, among which white ginseng showed the most powerful activity. Cultured wild ginseng roots showed strongest effect against both B. subtilis PM 125(Gram-positive) and E. coli D31 (Gram-negative) bacteria, while red ginseng and white ginseng only showed the activity against B. subtilis. According to the result of the MTT assay, ail of the three extracts inhibited the growth of U-937 human hohistiocytic lympma cell, which were significantly different (p < 0.05) when compared to the control.

• Journal of Ginseng Research
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• v.26 no.2
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• pp.74-78
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• 2002

To develop a new traditional ginseng liquor by using rice and ginseng, the physicochemical properties and overall acceptability of ginseng liquors made by addition of different concentration (1-8%) of ginseng in some kinds of rice mash were investigated and compared. The Ilpum-4 traditional ginseng liquor which was prepared by adding 4% ginseng into Ilpum rice mash showed the best acceptability in the sensory evaluation test and high ethanol content (15.6%), and its angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitory activity and electron-donating ability were better than those of the other ginseng liquors. The Ilpum-4 traditional ginseng liquor contained 0.53% (w/v) of crude saponin and it was mainly composed of ginsenoside Rg$_1$.

• Laboraroty Animal Research
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• v.33 no.2
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• pp.105-113
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• 2017

insenosides from Panax ginseng are well known for their diverse pharmacological effects including antithrombotic activity. Since adventitious roots of mountain ginseng (ARMG) also contain various ginsenosides, blood flow-improving effects of the dried powder and extract of ARMG were investigated. Rats were orally administered with dried powder (PARMG) or ethanol extract (EARMG) of ARMG (125, 250 or 500 mg/kg) or aspirin (30 mg/kg, a reference control) for 3 weeks. Forty min after the final administration, carotid arterial thrombosis was induced by applying a 70% $FeCl_3$-soaked filter paper outside the arterial wall for 5 min, and the blood flow was monitored with a laser Doppler probe. Both PARMG and EARMG delayed the $FeCl_3$-induced arterial occlusion in a dose-dependent manner, doubling the occlusion time at high doses. In mechanism studies, a high concentration of EARMG inhibited platelet aggregation induced by collagen in vitro. In addition, EARMG improved the blood lipid profiles, decreasing triglyceride and cholesterol levels. Although additional action mechanisms remain to be clarified, it is suggested that ARMG containing high amount of ginsenosides such as $Rg_3$ improves blood flow not only by inhibiting oxidative thrombosis, but also by modifying blood lipid profiles.

• The Korea Journal of Herbology
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• v.33 no.4
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• pp.1-7
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• 2018

Objectives : Diabetic nephropathy is one of the most significant chronic complications of diabetes. Advanced glycation end products (AGEs) have been implicated in the development of diabetic nephropathy. GS-E3D is an enzymatic modified red ginseng extract by pectin lyase and has an increased concentration of the ginsenoside Rd compared to an unmodified red ginseng extract. In this study, we evaluated the preventive effects of GS-E3D on renal dysfunction in the type 2 diabetic db/db mice. Methods : GS-E3D (100 or 250 mg/kg body weight per day) was given to db/db mice through oral gavage for 6 weeks. Body weight and blood glucose levels were examined. At the end of the experiment, albuminuria was measured. The renal tissues were collected for histological examination, and immunohistochemical staining was used to detect renal accumulation of AGEs and podocyte loss Results : In the db/db mice, severe hyperglycemia developed, and albuminuria was significantly increased. Diabetes induced markedly morphological alterations to the renal glomerular cells. AGE accumulations and podocyte loss were detected in renal glomeruli. No difference in blood glucose levels was noted between GS-E3D-treated and vehicletreated diabetic db/db mice. However, GS-E3D treatment significantly reduced albuminuria and AGE accumulations in diabetic mice. Moreover, the loss of podocytes was restored by GS-E3D treatment. Conclusions : GS-E3D might be beneficial for the treatment of diabetic nephropathy. The ability of GS-E3D on to attenuate albuminuria and podocyte dysfunction in the db/db mice may be mediated by the inhibition of AGE accumulation.

• Journal of Veterinary Clinics
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• v.40 no.1
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• pp.1-7
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• 2023

The growing market for companion animals, combined with their increasing lifespan, has generated an increased interest in companion animal immunity enhancers. Ginsenoside, a saponin component of ginseng and an essential ingredient of red ginseng marc (produced during red ginseng production), is effective in improving immunity. In this experiment, a powder mixture of red ginseng marc and steamed red ginseng extract powder (RGME) was orally administered to dogs for eight weeks. Subsequently, blood samples were collected and tested every four weeks. In addition, canine peripheral blood mononuclear cells (cPBMCs) were stimulated with or without interleukin-2 (IL-2) to evaluate their proliferation and cytokine secretion abilities. Proliferation assay suggests that the administration of RGME effectively enhanced numbers of cPBMCs under IL-2 stimulation. Furthermore, in the RGME group, a significant increase in the concentration of interferon gamma released from cPBMCs under IL-2 stimulation was observed. In conclusion, RGME might be an effective health supplement for improving immunity in dogs.

• The Korean Journal of Food And Nutrition
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• v.25 no.3
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• pp.570-578
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• 2012

Compound K(ginsenoside M1) is one of saponin metabolites and has many benefits for human health. This study was to investigate Compound K produced from ginseng crude saponin extract with commercial cellulolytic complex enzyme(cellulase, ${\beta}$-glucanase, and hemicellulase) obtained from Trichoderma reesei. The effect factors(temperature, pH, ginseng crude saponin extract and enzyme concentration, and reaction time) on production of Compound K from ginseng crude saponin extract were determined by one factor at a time method. The selected major factor variables were ginseng crude saponin extract of 2%(w/v), enzyme of 7%(v/v), reaction time of 48 hr. Based on the effect factors, response surface method was proceeded to optimize the enzymatic bioconversion conditions for the desirable Compound K production under the fixed condition of pH 5.0 and $50^{\circ}C$. The optimal reaction condition from RSM was ginseng crude saponin extract of 2.38%, enzyme of 6.06%, and reaction time of 64.04 hr. The expected concentration of Compound K produced from that reaction was 840.77 mg/100 g. Production of Compound K was 1,017.93 mg/100 g and 862.31 mg/100 g, by flask and bench-scale bioreactor($2.5{\ell}$) system, respectively.

• Journal of the Korean Society of Food Science and Nutrition
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• v.36 no.7
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• pp.889-895
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• 2007

This study investigated the quality characteristics of red ginseng cheonggukjang development by a various of concentration of red ginseng extract and powder to enhance its acceptability and functional properties. In the cheonggukjang added with red ginseng extract, viscous substances, reducing sugars, and fibrinolytic activity showed higher values by the addition of red ginseng extract. The standard crude saponin content of products containing red ginseng was evaluated, and found to be suitable in cheonggukjang added with 4% red ginseng extract. In the cheonggukjang added with red ginseng powder, viscous substances, reducing sugars, and fibrinolytic activity showed a similar tendency to the cheonggukjang added with red ginseng extract. Amino type nitrogen and ammonia type nitrogen decreased by increasing the addition of red ginseng powder, and the crude saponin content of cheonggukjang with the addition of 14% red ginseng powder was suitable, in terms of manufacturing standards for products containing red ginseng. Dependent on the addition time of red ginseng in cheonggukjang, viscous substances, reducing sugars, fibrinolytic activity, amino type nitrogen, and ammonia type nitrogen showed no differences based on the addition time; however, for crude saponin content, the cheonggukjang with red ginseng added before fermentation showed a higher saponin content than the cheonggukjang with red ginseng added after fermentation. The ginsenosides $Rg_{1}$, Re, Rf, $Rh_{1}$, $Rg_{2}$, $Rb_{1}$, Rc, $Rb_{2}$, Rd and $Rg_{3}$ were detected, but ginsenoside content did not show significant difference according to addition time. In conclusion, the addition amount of red ginseng in cheonggukjang for optimum fermentation was concentration of 4% (w/w), which showed the best results in quality characteristics.

• Journal of Ginseng Research
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• v.24 no.4
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• pp.196-201
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• 2000

Effects of ginsenosides on NaCN-induced neuronal cell death were studied in cultured rat cerebellar granule cells. NaCN produced a concentration-dependent (1-10 mM) reduction of cell viability (measured by frypan blue exclusion test), that was blocked by N-methyl-D-aspartate receptor antagonist (MK-801) and L-type Ca$\^$2+/ channel blocker (verapamil). Pretreatment with ginsenosides (Rb$_1$, Rc, Re, Rf and Rg$_1$) significantly decreased the neuronal cell death in a concentration range of 0.5∼5$\mu\textrm{g}$/ml. Ginsenosides Rb$_1$ and Rc (5 $\mu\textrm{g}$/ml) inhibited glutamate release into medium induced by NaCN (5 mM). NaCN (1 mM)-induced increase of [Ca$\^$2+/], was significantly inhibited by the pretreatment of Rb$_1$ and Rc (5 $\mu\textrm{g}$/ml). Other ginsenosides caused relatively little inhibition on the elevation of glutamate release and of (Ca$\^$2+/). These results suggest that the NaCN-induced neurotoxicity was related to a series of cell responses consisting of glutamate release and [Ca$\^$2+/]i elevation via glutamate (NMDA and kainate) receptors and resultant cell death, and that ginsenosides, especially Rb$_1$ and Rc, prevented the neuronal cell death by the blockade of the NaCN-induced Ca$\^$2+/influx.

• Journal of Ginseng Research
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• v.43 no.1
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• pp.38-48
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• 2019

Background: Interspecific ginseng hybrid, Panax ginseng ${\times}$ Panax quenquifolius (Pgq) has vigorous growth and produces larger roots than its parents. However, F1 progenies are complete male sterile. Plant tissue culture technology can circumvent the issue and propagate the hybrid. Methods: Murashige and Skoog (MS) medium with different concentrations (0, 2, 4, and 6 mg/L) of 2,4-dichlorophenoxyacetic acid (2,4-D) was used for callus induction and somatic embryogenesis (SE). The embryos, after culturing on $GA_3$ supplemented medium, were transferred to hormone free 1/2 Schenk and Hildebrandt (SH) medium. The developed taproots with dormant buds were treated with $GA_3$ to break the bud dormancy, and transferred to soil. Hybrid Pgq plants were verified by random amplified polymorphic DNA (RAPD) and inter simple sequence repeat (ISSR) analyses and by LC-IT-TOF-MS. Results: We conducted a comparative study of somatic embryogenesis (SE) in Pgq and its parents, and attempted to establish the soil transfer of in vitro propagated Pgq tap roots. The Pgq explants showed higher rate of embryogenesis (~56% at 2 mg/L 2,4-D concentration) as well as higher number of embryos per explants (~7 at the same 2,4-D concentration) compared to its either parents. The germinated embryos, after culturing on $GA_3$ supplemented medium, were transferred to hormone free 1/2 SH medium to support the continued growth and kept until nutrient depletion induced senescence (NuDIS) of leaf defoliation occurred (4 months). By that time, thickened tap roots with well-developed lateral roots and dormant buds were obtained. All Pgq tap roots pretreated with 20 mg/L $GA_3$ for at least a week produced new shoots after soil transfer. We selected the discriminatory RAPD and ISSR markers to find the interspecific ginseng hybrid among its parents. The $F_1$ hybrid (Pgq) contained species specific 2 ginsenosides (ginsenoside Rf in P. ginseng and pseudoginsenosides $F_{11}$ in P. quinquefolius), and higher amount of other ginsenosides than its parents. Conclusion: Micropropagation of interspecific hybrid ginseng can give an opportunity for continuous production of plants.