• Journal of Ginseng Research
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• v.41 no.2
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• pp.180-187
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• 2017

Background: The incidence of halitosis has a prevalence of 22-50% throughout the world and is generally caused by anaerobic oral microorganisms, such as Fusobacterium nucleatum, Clostridium perfringens, and Porphyromonas gingivalis. Previous investigations on the structure-activity relationships of ginsenosides have led to contrasting results. Particularly, the antibacterial activity of less polar ginsenosides against halitosis-related bacteria has not been reported. Methods: Crude saponins extracted from the Panax quinquefolius leaf-stem (AGS) were treated at $130^{\circ}C$ for 3 h to obtain heat-transformed saponins (HTS). Five ginsenoside-enriched fractions (HTS-1, HTS-2, HTS-3, HTS-4, and HTS-5) and less polar ginsenosides were separated by HP-20 resin absorption and HPLC, and the antimicrobial activity and mechanism were investigated. Results: HPLC with diode-array detection analysis revealed that heat treatment induced an extensive conversion of polar ginsenosides (-Rg1/Re, -Rc, -Rb2, and -Rd) to less polar compounds (-Rg2, -Rg3, -Rg6, -F4, -Rg5, and -Rk1). The antimicrobial assays showed that HTS, HTS-3, and HTS-4 were effective at inhibiting the growth of F. nucleatum, C. perfringens, and P. gingivalis. Ginsenosides-Rg5 showed the best antimicrobial activity against the three bacteria, with the lowest values of minimum inhibitory concentration and minimum bactericidal concentration. One major reason for this result is that less polar ginsenosides can more easily damage membrane integrity. Conclusion: The results indicated that the less polar ginsenoside-enriched fraction from heat transformation can be used as an antibacterial agent to control halitosis.

• Journal of Ginseng Research
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• v.34 no.3
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• pp.227-236
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• 2010

The objective of this study was to evaluate the potential use of ginseng leaf as a cosmetic material. In this research, we employed enzymatic treated ginseng leaf by using Ultraflo L to improve the recovery of ginsenosides from the ginseng leaf and studied the biological activities and skin safety of the enzymatic treated ginseng leaf for use as a cosmetic material. The total ginsenoside contents of the non-enzymatic treated ginseng leaf (NEGL) and Ultraflo L treated ginseng leaf (UTGL) were 271 and 406 mg/g, respectively. The level of metabolite ginsenosides (sum of Rg2, Rg3, Rg5, Rk1, compound K, Rh1, Rh2, and F2) was higher in UTGL (93.1 mg) compared to NEGL (62.4 mg) in one gram ginseng leaf extract. The increase in amounts of ginsenoside types in UTGL compared to NEGL was generally 140% to 157%. UTGL exhibited relatively higher 2,2-diphenyl-2-picrylhydrazyl hydrate ($IC_{50}$, 2.8 mg/mL) and 2,2'-azino-bis(3-ethylbenzothiazoline-6-sulfonic acid) diammonium salt ($IC_{50}$, 1.6 mg/mL) radical scavenging activities compared to NEGL (4.8 mg/mL and 2.2 mg/mL). The UTGL group showed normalized hydrogen peroxide, lipid peroxidation and visual wrinkling grade induced-UVB exposure. The UTGL did not induce any adverse reactions such as erythema and edema on intact skin sites; however, some guinea pigs treated with UTGL on abraded skin sites showed very slight erythema. The primary irritation index (PII) score of UTGL was 0.05 and it was classified as a practically non-irritating material (PII, 0 to 0.5). In skin sensitization tests with guinea pigs, UTGL had a positive rate of skin sensitization at 40%, and the mean evaluation score was 0.4.

• Journal of Ginseng Research
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• v.36 no.1
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• pp.93-101
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• 2012

This study evaluated the anti-cholinesterases (ChEs) and antioxidant activities of white ginseng (WG) and black ginseng (BG) roots of Panax ginseng (PG), P. quinquefolium (PQ), and P. notoginseng (PN). Ginsenosides $Rg_1$, Re, Rf, $Rb_1$, Rc, $Rb_2$, and Rd were found in white PG, whereas Rf was not found in white PQ and Rf, Rc, and $Rb_2$ were not detected in white PN. The major ginsenoside content in steamed BG including $RK_3$, $Rh_4$, and 20(S)/(R)-$Rg_3$ was equivalent to approximately 70% of the total ginsenoside content. The WG and BG inhibited acetylcholinesteras (AChE) and butyrylcholinesterase (BChE) in a dose dependent manner. The efficacy of BG roots of PG, PQ, and PN on AChE and BChE inhibition was greater than that of the respective WG roots. The total phenolic contents and 2, 2-diphenyl-1-picryl-hydrazyl (DPPH) scavenging activity were increased by heat treatment. Among the three WG and BG, white PG and steamed black PQ have significantly higher contents of phenolic compounds. The best results for the DPPH scavenging activity were obtained with the WG and BG from PG. These results demonstrate that the steamed BG roots of the three studied ginseng species have both high ChEs inhibition capacity and antioxidant activity.

• Korean Journal of Food Science and Technology
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• v.50 no.4
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• pp.383-390
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• 2018

Most neurodegenerative diseases are known to be influenced by oxidative stress. We investigated the anti-oxidative activity of the concentrate of fermented wild ginseng root culture (HLJG0701) containing ginsenosides Rg5 and Rk1. HLJG0701 showed effective DPPH and ABTS radical scavenging ability ($IC_{50}$: 16- and 4-fold dilution, respectively) and was inhibited dose-dependently by the $FeSO_4$-induced lipid peroxidation group (8- and 4-fold dilution: 2.3 and 1.5 nM, respectively). In MTT and LDH assays, 8-, 16-, 32- and 64-fold diluted HLJG0701 significantly increased cell viability by 70, 53, 35, and 26%, respectively. LDH released by HLJG0701 was reduced 1.3-fold with 8-fold diluted HLJG0701 compared to the $H_2O_2$-treated control. In addition, the inhibitory effect of HLJG0701 on oxidative stress in PC12 cells was confirmed by DCF-DA analysis (16-, 4-fold diluted HLJG0701: 50 and 68% ROS inhibition, respectively), TBARS (16- and 4-fold diluted HLJG0701: 50.7 and 46.5% inhibition, respectively), GPx (16- and 4-fold diluted HLJG0701: 133.3 and 227.3% release, respectively), and SOD analysis (16- and 4-fold diluted HLJG0701: 118.2 and 218.2% release, respectively). These results suggested that HLJG0701 protects neuronal cells by its anti-oxidative effects and hence can be a potential preventive material against neurodegenerative diseases.

• Journal of Physiology & Pathology in Korean Medicine
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• v.22 no.2
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• pp.397-402
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• 2008

The purpose of this study is to prepare black Panax ginseng leaf (PGL) and evaluate its antioxidative effect. In order to make black PGL, the raw PGL was successiely steamed at $95^{\circ}C$ for 3 hr nine times. The antioxidant activities of total saponins (Sa) from PGL and black PGL against peroxyl radicals and peroxynitrites were determined by the total oxy-radical scavenging capacity (TOSC) assay. Specific TOSC values for black PGL-Sa against peroxyl radicals and peroxynitrites were 2.3-fold and 2.1-fold of PGL-Sa, respectively, and 2.2-fold and 5.2-fold of glutathione, a positive control antioxidant, respectively. The black PGL-Sa exhibited stronger antioxidative effect than PGL-Sa. The main ginsenosides of black PGL were $Rg_3,\;Rk_1\;and\;Rg_5$. Among the saponins in black PGL, the amount of ginsenoside $Rg_3$ was examined by HPLC. 22.12 mg of ginsenoside $Rg_3$ was obtained from 1g of dried black PGL.

• Journal of the Korean Applied Science and Technology
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• v.35 no.4
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• pp.1213-1223
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• 2018

This study was carried out to investigate extraction efficiency by microwave for extraction of pesticide residues and the bioconversion of ginsenosides of ginseng leaf by using various lactic acid bacteria in order to promote the utilization of ginseng leaf. The hexane extraction by microwave of tolclofos-methyl and azoxystrobin in ginseng leaf was efficient. The optimal condition for extraction of tolclofos-methyl and azoxystrobin in ginseng leaf by microwave was 50 to 95 watts of power supply, 3 minutes of extraction.The gisenosides Rg1 and Rb1 contents have decreased, while the Rh1, Rg3, Rk1 and Rh2 have increased due to fermentation. The ginsenosides Rg3 of the fermented ginseng leaf has increased and the contents were $70.62{\sim}77.61{\mu}g/g$(control $2.77{\mu}g/g$). The total phenolic acid content and electron donating ability of the ginseng leaf have totally decreased after 7 days of fermentation. The total phenolic acid contents of the fermented ginseng leaf with various lactic acid bacteria did not show any tendency as different strains.

• Journal of Ginseng Research
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• v.44 no.2
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• pp.291-299
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• 2020

Background: Ginseng (G) and Ligustrum lucidum Ait (LLA) are core traditional Chinese medicines in treating myelosuppression formula. The present study was designed to profile effect of G and LLA herb pair (G-LLA) on myelosuppressed mice. Methods: The mice myelosuppression model was established by intraperitoneal (i.p.) injection of cyclophosphamide (Cy). Hematopoietic function of bone marrow was measured by hemopoietic progenitor cell culture and peripheral blood count, and serum hemopoietic factors were tested by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay. Bone marrow cell cycle was performed by flow cytometry. HPLC was used to measure 20 potential chemical components related to myelosuppression, including ginsenoside Rg₁, Re, Rb₁, Rc, Rb₂, Rb₃, Rd, Rk₃, Rh₄, 20 (S)-Rg₃, 20 (R)-Rg₃, Rk₁, Rg₅, salidroside, and so on. Results: G, LLA, and G-LLA improved the amount of peripheral blood cells and bone marrow cells of myelosuppressed mice (P < 0.01). They significantly increased the colony quantity of colony-forming unit-granulocyte macrophage, burst-forming unit-erythroid, colony-forming unit-erythroid, and colony-forming unit-megakaryocyte and amount of G₂/M and S phase cells (P < 0.01). They also significantly decreased the amount of hematopoiesis-related cytokines (P < 0.01). The content of chemical components in G-LLA changed, and the change of rare saponin was the most obvious. Conclusion: These results show that G-LLA herb pair might produce synergistic or complementary compatibility effects on bone marrow suppression after chemotherapy. It suggests that the substance basis of G-LLA for treating bone marrow suppression may be effective chemical components.

• Journal of Ginseng Research
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• v.41 no.3
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• pp.247-256
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• 2017

Background: KG-135, a standardized formulation enriched with Rk1, Rg3, and Rg5 ginsenosides, has been shown to inhibit various types of cancer cells; however, the underlying mechanisms are not fully understood. In this study, we explored its effects in A549 human lung cancer cells to investigate the induction of Forkhead Class box O3a (FOXO3a) and autophagy. Methods: Cell viability was determined by sulforhodamine B staining. Apoptosis and cell cycle distribution were analyzed using flow cytometry. The changes of protein levels were determined using Western blot analysis. Autophagy induction was monitored by the formation of acidic vesicular organelles stained with acridine orange. Results: KG-135 effectively arrested the cells in G1 phase with limited apoptosis. Accordingly, a decrease of cyclin-dependent kinase-4, cyclin-dependent kinase-6, cyclin D1, and phospho-retinoblastoma protein, and an increase of p27 and p18 proteins were observed. Intriguingly, KG-135 increased the tumor suppressor FOXO3a and induced the accumulation of autophagy hallmark LC3-II and acidic vesicular organelles without an increase of the upstream marker Beclin-1. Unconventionally, the autophagy adaptor protein p62 (sequestosome 1) was increased rather than decreased. Blockade of autophagy by hydroxychloroquine dramatically potentiated KG-135-induced FOXO3a and its downstream (FasL) ligand accompanied by the cleavage of caspase-8. Meanwhile, the decrease of Bcl-2 and survivin, as well as the cleavage of caspase-9, were also drastically enhanced, resulting in massive apoptosis. Conclusion: Besides arresting the cells in G1 phase, KG-135 increased FOXO3a and induced an unconventional autophagy in A549 cells. Both the KG-135-activated extrinsic FOXO3a/FasL/caspase-8 and intrinsic caspase-9 apoptotic pathways were potentiated by blockade of autophagy. Combination of KG-135 and autophagy inhibitor may be a novel strategy as an integrative treatment for cancers.

• Journal of Ginseng Research
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• v.46 no.1
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• pp.115-125
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• 2022

Background: Ginsenosides (GS) have potential value as cosmetic additives for prevention of skin photoaging. However, their protective mechanisms against skin barrier damage and their active monomeric constituents are unknown. Methods: GS monomer types and their relative proportions were identified. A UVB-irradiated BALB/c hairless mouse model was used to assess protective effects of GS components on skin epidermal thickness and transepidermal water loss (TEWL). Skin barrier function, reflected by filaggrin (FLG), involucrin (IVL), claudin-1 (Cldn-1), and aquaporin 3 (AQP3) levels and MAPK phosphorylation patterns, were analyzed in UVB-irradiated hairless mice or HaCaT cells. Results: Total GS monomeric content detected by UPLC was 85.45% and was largely attributed to 17 main monomers that included Re (16.73%), Rd (13.36%), and Rg1 (13.38%). In hairless mice, GS ameliorated UVB-induced epidermal barrier dysfunction manifesting as increased epidermal thickness, increased TEWL, and decreased stratum corneum water content without weight change. Furthermore, GS treatment of UVB-irradiated mice restored protein expression levels and epidermal tissue distributions of FLG, IVL, Cldn-1, and AQP3, with consistent mRNA and protein expression results obtained in UVB-irradiated HaCaT cells (except for unchanging Cldn-1 expression). Mechanistically, GS inhibited JNK, p38, and ERK phosphorylation in UVB-irradiated HaCaT cells, with a mixture of Rg2, Rg3, Rk3, F2, Rd, and Rb3 providing the same protective MAPK pathway inhibition-associated upregulation of IVL and AQP3 expression as provided by intact GS treatment. Conclusion: GS protection against UVB-irradiated skin barrier damage depends on activities of six ginsenoside monomeric constituents that inhibit the MAPK signaling pathway.

• Korean Journal of Medicinal Crop Science
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• v.20 no.1
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• pp.27-35
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• 2012

This study was conducted to investigate changes in composition of ginsenosides and color of processed ginsengs prepared by different steaming-drying times. Processed ginsengs were prepared from white ginseng with skin by 9-time repeated steaming at $96^{\circ}C$ for 3 hours and followed by hot air-drying at $50^{\circ}C$ for 24 hours. As the times of steaming processes increased, lightness (L value) decreased and redness (a value) increased in color of ginseng powders. Crude saponin contents and ginsenosides compositions in processed ginsengs prepared by different steaming-drying times were investigated using the HPLC method, respecively. Crude saponin contents according to increasing steaming-drying times decreased in some degree. In the case of major ginsenosides, the contents of $Rb_1$, $Rb_2$, Rc, Rd, Rf, Re, $RG_1$, Re were decreased with increase in steamimg times, but those of $Rh_1$, $Rg_3$, $Rk_1$ were increased after especially 3 times of steaming processes. Interestingly, in black ginseng were prepared by 9 times steaming processes, the content of ginsenoside $Rg_3$ was 8.20 mg/g, approximately 18 times higher than that (0.46 mg/g) in red ginseng. In addition, the ratio of the protopanaxadiol group and protopanaxatiol group (PD/PT) were increased from 1.9 to 8.4 due to increasing times of steamming process.