• Nutrition Research and Practice
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• v.9 no.3
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• pp.242-248
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• 2015

BACKGROUND/OBJECTIVES: Feeding in infancy is the most significant determinant of the intestinal microbiota in early life. The aim of this study was to determine the gut microbiota of Korean infants and compare the microbiota obtained between breast-fed and formula-fed Korean infants. SUBJECTS/METHODS: We analyzed the microbial communities in fecal samples collected from twenty 4-week old Korean (ten samples in each breast-fed or formula-fed) infants using pyrosequencing. RESULTS: The fecal microbiota of the 4-week-old Korean infants consisted of the three phyla Actinobacteria, Firmicutes, and Proteobacteria. In addition, five species, including Bifidocbacterium longum, Streptococcus salivarius, Strepotococcus lactarius, Streptococcus pseudopneumoniae, and Lactobacillus gasseri were common commensal intestinal microbiota in all infants. The predominant intestinal microbiota in the breast-fed infants (BFI) included the phylum Actinobacteria (average 70.55%), family Bifidobacteriacea (70.12%), genus Bifidobacterium (70.03%) and species Bifidobacterium longum (69.96%). In the microbiota from the formula-fed infants (FFI), the proportion of the phylum Actinobacteria (40.68%) was less, whereas the proportions of Firmicutes (45.38%) and Proteobacteria (13.85%) as well as the diversity of each taxonomic level were greater, compared to those of the BFI. The probiotic species found in the 4-week-old Korean infants were Bifidobacterium longum, Streptococcus salivarius, and Lactobacillus gasseri. These probiotic species accounted for 93.81% of the microbiota from the BFI, while only 63.80% of the microbiota from the FFI. In particular, B. longum was more abundant in BFI (69.96%) than in FFI (34.17%). CONCLUSIONS: Breast milk supports the growth of B. longum and inhibits others. To the best of our knowledge, this study was the first attempt to analyze the gut microbiota of healthy Korean infants according to the feeding type using pyrosequencing. Our data can be used as a basis for further studies to investigate the development of intestinal microbiota with aging and disease status.

• Journal of Nutrition and Health
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• v.36 no.8
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• pp.841-850
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• 2003

Soy-based formula has been used for centuries in Korea. Soybeans contain phytochemicals with a biochemically active component, isoflavone. Isoflavone is a kind of phytoestrogens, structurally and functionally similar to estrogen. This study was conducted to investigate the effects of soy-based infant formula on growth, development, and isoflavone concentration in the plasma and urine. Thirty-nine healthy infants who were delivered at K university medical center were recruited. Experimental groups were the breast milk group (n = 15, BM) who were fed breast milk, soy-based formula group (n = 10, SBF) who were fed soy-based infant formula, and the casein-based formula group (n = 14, CBF) who were fed casein-based infant formula for 4 months. HPLC analysis was used to measure the concentration of isoflavones. The measurements of infant weight, length, head circumference and chest circumference were all in the normal growth range and were similar among the experimental groups. No significant differences were found in the scores of total mean of infant development test (Development Quotient, DQ) among the experimental groups. The isoflavone content of soy-based formula was significantly higher than. that of breast milk and casein-based formula. Plasma concentration of daidzein and genistein in the infants fed soy-based formula (daidzein : 264.1 ng/ml, genistein : 392.1 ng/ml) was significantly higher (p<.0001) than that in infants fed breast milk (daidzein : 3.4 ng/ml, genistein : 3.8 ng/ml) and casein-based formula (daidzein: 8.1 ng/ml, genistein: 9.3 ng/ml). Also, urinary daidzein and genistein concentrations in infants fed soy-based formula (daidzein: 19.82 $\mu$g/ml, genistein : 17.89 $\mu$g/ml) were significantly higher (p<.001) than those in infants fed breast milk (daidzein: 0.28 $\mu$g/ml, genistein : 0.22 $\mu$g/ml) and casein-based formula (daidzein : 0.45 $\mu$g/ml, genistein : 0.33 $\mu$g/ml).

• Journal of the East Asian Society of Dietary Life
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• v.15 no.4
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• pp.373-385
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• 2005

This study was carried out to investigate the lactation and weaning practice of infants and their mothers' attitude on infant nutrition. We interviewed 152 mothers in three pediatric clinics located in Sokcho city. From this survey, $76.3\%$ of infants was fed colostrum milk during first one week of life. During the first 4 months, $31.6\%$ of infants was fed breast-milk, while $42.8\%$ of them was fed bottled-milk. More housewives fed their babies with breast milk than the working mothers. Infants ate first weaning food at 5.73$\pm$1.86 months of life. Highly educated mothers showed positive response to the questionnaire : Breast-feeding is good for baby but it requires mother's sacrifice, and Breast-feeding may ruin the good shape of mothers. Highly income mothers responded negatively to the statement : Breast-feeding is not a must for infants since bottled-milk is a good substitution for breast-milk. Comparing with the mothers whose income was about 1 -2 million won per month, with ones who got paid less than 1 million won per month the former responded positively to : Breast-feeding is good for baby but it requires mother's sacrifice. Mothers recognized the importance of weaning in the following order : Supply of nutrition, Enforcement of digestion and absorption capability, Variety of taste, Disease prevention, Development of self-reliance, and Development of baby tooth. To improve the infants' nutritional status, education program on infant nutrition should be organized and run for the pregnant and lactating women in obstetrician and pediatric clinics and through the mass media as well.

• Korean Journal of Community Nutrition
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• v.10 no.4
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• pp.453-461
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• 2005

This study was conducted to investigate the mothers' nutritional knowledge on weaning of 101 infants (8 for 4 mo, 44 for 5 mo, 45 for 6 mo, 4 for 7 mo) at a public health center of Incheon. Informations on the mothers' nutritional knowledge were obtained by questionnaires. In this survey $41.6\%$ of infants were breast-feeding, $43.6\%$ of them were bottle-feeding, and $14.9\%$ of them were mixed feeding right after birth. The rate of breast-feeding right after birth was significantly higher in mothers of high school graduate than mothers of college/university graduate (p < 0.05). The infants of mothers graduated high school began to be weaned significantly earlier than the infants of mothers graduated college/university (p < 0.05). $95.1\%$ of infants (n = 101) began to be weaned 4 to 6 months. $83.1\%$ of infants were fed home-made weaning foods. $66.7\%$ of infants were fed rice gruel, $18.5\%$ of them were fruit juice, $6.2\%$ of them were mixed grain, and $4.9\%$ of them were commercially prepared weaning foods as their first supplementary foods. As main supplementary foods, $32.8\%$ of infants were fed vegetable, $30.5\%$ of them were rice gruel, and $27.7\%$ of them were fruit juice. Mothers' nutritional knowledge related to weaning was significantly higher among mothers of college/ university graduate than mothers of high school graduate (p < 0.05). $86.1\%$ of mothers disagreed with the questionnaire in which breast-fed infants aged over 4 months needed to be fed iron sufficient food. For the improvement of nutritional status especially iron nutritional status of infants, nutritional education for mothers with weaning aged infants has to be increased and related programs have to be operated effectively.

• Journal of Nutrition and Health
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• v.26 no.4
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• pp.423-432
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• 1993

Feeding mode and evacuation pattern of 9 breast-fed(BF) infants and 22 formula-fed(FF) infants were monitored at 1, 2 and 3 months postpartum in Korea. The daily feeding volume to the BF infants was significantly less than that to the FF infants at 2 and 3 months postpartum. And the daily feeding voloume to the BF infants decreased significantly with age, whereas that to the FF infants increased significantly. These data indicated that the frequency of daily feeding decreased with age in bofy infants' intake per feeding increased whereas the BF infants' did not. As a result, the BF infants could not adjust their intakes. The frequency of daily evactation of the BF infants was higher than that of the FF infants, but the amount of daily evacuation of the BF infants was less than that of the FF infants.

• Journal of Nutrition and Health
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• v.34 no.1
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• pp.23-29
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• 2001

This study was conducted to investigate the concentrations and infants intake of sodium and potassium from human milk during the first 5 months of lactation. The sodium concentrations of the milk during the lactation appeared 21.1, 18.1, 15.9, 12.4, 10.6 and 11.4 mg/100g at 0.5, 1, 2, 3, 4, and 5 months of lactation respectively. The potassium concentrations of the milk 48.5, 43.3, 40.8, 39.9, 40.5 and 38.5 respectively, Na/K ratio of the milk were 0.76, 0.75, 0.70, 0.56, 0.46 and 0.53(mEqu\\mEq). Sodium intakes of breast-fed infants were 106.9, 108.4, 90.6, 82.5 and 95.6mg/day during the lactation. Potassium intakes of the infants were 255.7, 276.0, 289.7, 294.6, 320.3 and 318.3mg/day. Sodium and potassium concentrations in infant formula averaged 23.62 and 67.61 mg/100g which was 1.90 and 1.69 times as those of breast milk at 3 month of lactation. Commercial whole milks had 39.53 and 135.22mg/100g of sodium and potassium respectively which was 3.19 and 3.39 times as those of the milk. From this study, reevaluation of sodium and potassium intakes if breast-fel infants was merited and the regulation of that minerals in infant formula is need to lower the renal solute load of formula-fed infants.(Korean J Nutrition 34(1):23-29, 2001)

• Journal of Nutrition and Health
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• v.31 no.3
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• pp.363-368
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• 1998

Taurine is only supplied to the infants from the breast-fed or formula milks because the enzyme activities of taurine biosynthesis are limited in early stages of infants . The objectives of present study were to quantitate the contents of tarurine in human milk and to estimate the intake of taurine by breast-fed infants during early period of lactation. Thirty -three lactating women, volunteered and delivered in R hospital in Serou. were recruited. Milk samples were collected every day at B1-B5 day(from 1 to 5 day dafter start of milk secretion), 15th and 30th day postpartum. Taurine contents were determined by HPLC equipped with RF-detector. The intake of taurine by infants was estimated by multiplization with the infant milk intake reported in our laboratory. The content of taurine was 406$\pm$174nmol/ml at B1-B5 day, and then gradually decreased to 359$\pm$125nmol/ml at 15th day and to 304$\pm$94nmol/ml at 30th day postpartum. The estimated intake of taurine was almost same as 24-25mg/day at B1-B5 day, and 15th , 30th days postpartum . This results was due to the increase of the intake of milk by infants.

• Journal of Nutrition and Health
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• v.31 no.3
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• pp.305-314
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• 1998

Microflora in 14 breast-fed(BF) and 15 formula-fed(FF) infants were investigated before (2-3 months after birth) and after weaning (5-7 months birth) to find the floral differences between the two lactation groups and the floral changes after weaning. Bifidolbacteria showed the highest count among the species of microflora in the BF group before and after weaning, but in the FF group, streptococci showed the highest count before weaning and bifidobacteria after weaning. Before weaning , the count of bifidobacteria, lactobacilli and total acaerobes were significantly higher in the BF group than in the FF. However, the frequencies of clostridia and klesidella , along with the counts of streptococci and eubacteria, were higher in the FF group. After weaning , the only difference was that the total count of aerobic bacteria was higher in the BF group. The counts of streptococci in the BF group and lactobacilli and total anaerobes in the FF group after weaning were significantly higher than before weaning. However, the count of total aerobes in the FF group after weaning was significantly lower than the count before weaning.

• Journal of Nutrition and Health
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• v.30 no.5
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• pp.512-519
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• 1997

To investigate the energy, protein, lipid, and lactose intakes of breast-fed infants of lacto-ove-vegetarians, 25 infants(13 boys, 10 girls) were examined on the 0.5th, 1st, 2nd, and 3nd months of lactation. The amount of breast milk intake was determined by a test-weighing method, and the energy content of protein, lipid, and lactose was calculated using the Atwater factor. Thedaily energy intake for boys averaged 316, 436, 447, and 431kcal and that of girls averaged 284, 399, 401, and 390kcal during lactation, respectively. Average energy intake of boys from milk from 2nd week to the 3rd month postpartum was significantly higher than that of girls(p<0.05), because milk intake volume of boys was much higher than that of girls. The protein intake of boys on 2nd week-3rd month averaged 7.33g/day and that of girls averaged 6.29g/day. The lipid intake of 2nd week, months averaged 21.8g/day and that of girls averaged 20.1g/day. The lactose intake of boys averaged 45.48g/day, while that of girls averaged 41.09g/day. The mean intake of protein and lactose in boys was significantly higher than that of girls.

• Korean Journal of Community Nutrition
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• v.3 no.2
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• pp.174-189
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• 1998

The purpose of this study was to evaluate the nutritional status and growth of Korean infants, who were atending peripheral community clinics in low income areas, by anthropometric measurements and estimating dietary intakes. Dietary intakes and growth were compared among different feeding patterns of 143 infants until age 9 months. The overall mean nutrient intakes of infants in this study were below the recommended allowances except the calcium intake from significant difference in each groups; however, calcium, zinc and iron intake of the formula fed infant(FF) was higher than the breast fed infant(BF) or the mixed fed infant(MF). Form ages 4-6 months, the nutrient intakes were shown to be higher in groups that were given supplementary foods than groups that were not. From ages 7-9 months, all nutrient intakes were higher in or the formula and supplementary foods fed(ESF) infants than in the breast and supplementary food(BSF) or the formula and supplementary food(FSF) groups, All subjets in this study showed a large Z-score. The growth of infants up to 6 months of age showed no significant difference in the feeding pattern, however, after 7 months of age the BSF group had significantly lower weight than the FSF or the ESF groups, There were significant positive relationships between infants weight gain at age 7-9 months from birth and the current protein or zinc intakes. As a result the average status of nutrient intakes of infants in this area was loser than the RDA, however, the growth pattern was fairly good. Although the breast milk is beneficial for infants, mothers should be educated for the importance of supplemental food and its practice to support good mutrition(Korean J Community Nutrition 3 (2) : 174-189, 1998)