• 건축역사연구
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• 제16권2호
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• pp.99-118
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• 2007

Kyedan(戒壇) is an altar to perform a rite of Buddhist Initiation which gives Precept to a Buddhist monk. Sometimes it is called the Place of Precept and Mandala by Sanskrit. In this study, the Sutra of the Tang(唐) Dosun(道宣) regarding First Kyedan of Jetavana-anathapindasyarama(祇園精舍), which was the first temple such as, Kyedandokyung(戒壇圖經), Kiwonsadokyung(祇洹寺圖經), Sabunyul(四分律) were analyzed to find out original form and layout. Ultimately, the study was intended to examine the spatial formation-principle by comparing with Kyedan Temple. The results of this study could be summarized as below. First. Except for Kyedan in Bakryensa, the height of lower stone plate of Buddhist Bell-Shaped Stupa of Korean Kyedan is higher than three storied Kyedan that described in Kyedandokyung. Second. Buddhist Bell-Shaped Stupa above Kyedan was presumed that embodied image of Bell Pedestal and symbolism of overturned-bowl were combined together, when Kyedandokyung and Kiwonsadokyung were referred. It could be examined by the existence of stone lantern. Third. In Korea, the rite of Buddhist initiation that gives Precept in Kyedan has been considered impossible. However, when the rite was conducted, there was a possibility to establish wood stair. It is because that the Buddhist Stupa of Silleuuksa(神勒寺) and Woljeongsa(月精寺), which reflected the image of Kyedan had stone stair. Fourth, The method to build Kyedan of Dosun divided into Large Region and Small Region was applied to the method to construct Stone terrace behind Jeongmyeolbogung(寂滅寶宮) like Tongdosa(通度寺) and complete Kyedan on the stone terrace. In other words, Jeongmyeolbogung became Kyedanwon(戒壇院) and Kyedan, itself became Small Region. The area of Stone terrace became Large Region and naturally, they constituted an Institution. Fifth, Korean Kyedan which is consist of Jeongmyeonlbogung and Kyedan is a Korean original composition principles of Kyedangaram(戒壇伽藍) that can satiate all the functions of Kyedan as a religious subject and the place of the rite of Buddhist initiation, as it had complex of Outdoor Kyedan, which was suggested by the sutra of Dosun and Institution of Kyedan.

• 동양고전연구
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• 제62호
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• pp.209-229
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• 2016

이 논문은 동아시아적 사유를 통해 경계의 의미에 대하여 접근함으로써 경계 담론의 외연을 확장하고자 한다. 사람에게는 우선 '나'라는 '자기 경계'가 있다. 그 몸 경계 속에 정신활동의 경계가 있어서 타자를 대상으로 여기거나 대상을 그려낸다. 동아시아 문화권에서 원초적으로 경계는 국경, 강계(疆界)를 가리키는데, 그것은 물론 불교의 공(空)의 세계를 나타내기도 한다. 경계는 동아시아 사유에서 '인간의 의식이 향하는 곳'이라는 의미가 중요하게 자리 잡고 있고, 그것은 정치, 사회, 문화, 예술 방면에 걸친 것이어서 그리 단편적이지도 않다. 사람에게 생명이 있는 한, 참으로 다가가지 않으면 안 되는 '경계'도 있고, 정신적으로는 욕망, 의지, 관념이 빚어내는 경계도 있다. '경계' 의미에는 사람의 사물 인식 체계에 관계되는 것도 있다. 눈, 코, 입, 귀, 신체 등 오감의 인식 과정에 의한 경계도 있다. 그런 경우라면 다분히 불교적인 맥락에 기초한 사물 인식 차원에 관한 접근인데, 그 같은 인식 시스템에서 발생하는 '경계'는 궁극적이거나 바람직하지 않아서 탈피하지 않으면 안 되는 것도 포함되어 있다. 이 같은 점에 유의하여 경계의 의미, 인간의 의식이 불가피하게 만드는 경계, 부정적인 인식의 경계 등을 성찰하면서 우리가 진정으로 만들어야 하거나 탈피하지 않으면 안 되는 경계 문제를 이 논문은 접근한다.

• 헤리티지:역사와 과학
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• 제53권3호
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• pp.62-79
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• 2020

강화 보문사 마애관음보살좌상은 일제강점기였던 1928년에 조성된 거대한 규모의 마애불상으로 한국 근대 불교 조각사에서 중요한 위치를 차지하는 기년명 불상임에도 불구하고 그동안 근대 불교 조각에 대한 연구 부진으로 심도 있는 논의가 이루어지지 못하였다. 본고에서는 보문사 마애관음보살좌상이 근대기 불상으로서 갖는 의미를 다양한 측면에서 살펴보기 위해 마애불 주변에 있는 명문을 판독하여 조성 연대와 제작자 및 후원자를 확인하였으며, 바위의 형태와 지형이 불상의 조형성에 어떤 영향을 끼쳤는지 알아보기 위해 제작자와 참배객의 시점(視點)을 비교 분석하였다. 또한 제작자 후손들과의 인터뷰를 통하여 불상 조성 당시의 구체적 정황을 파악해 보았다. 보문사 마애관음보살좌상의 제작에는 금강산 승려 이화응(李華應)이 화주(化主)겸 화사(畫師)를 맡았고, 불상 조성이 시작되는 1928년에는 100여 명이 넘는 시주자가 공동으로 후원하였으며, 1937년 참배공간을 확장할 때는 간송 전형필(澗松 全鎣弼)이 단독 후원하였다. 이 마애불 조성을 계기로 강화 보문사는 양양 낙산사, 남해 보리암과 더불어 우리 나라 3대 관음 도량으로 손꼽히게 되었다. 불상의 제작 기간은 약 3개월이 소요되었으며 초(草)는 화주를 맡았던 이화응이 그리고 조각은 운송학(雲松學) 등 다섯 명의 강화 지역 석수가 참여하였는데, 화승이 그린 초를 바탕으로 조각이 이루어졌기 때문에 마애불 곳곳에서 선묘적 기법이 발견된다. 화사로서 이화응의 면모가 밝혀짐에 따라 석옹철유(石翁喆有)-화응형진(華應亨眞)-일옹혜각(一翁慧覺)으로 이어지는 화맥의 단초를 확인할 수 있게 되었다. 보문사 마애관음보살좌상은 보관을 쓰고 정병을 든 전형적인 관음보살로 방형의 큰 얼굴에 목이 짧고 전체적으로 투박하여 경직된 인상을 준다. 제작자는 높이 10m에 40°가량 기울어져 있는 바위에 마애불을 왜곡 없이 보이기 위해 최대한 동작을 절제하고 대칭성을 강조하여 세부 표현을 생략하였고, 머리와 신체 비례는 1:1에 가깝게 조정하여 시각적 왜곡 문제를 해결하였다. 특히, 본고에서는 보문사 마애관음보살좌상처럼 별도의 불단을 만들지 않는 '불상과 불단의 일체화'된 형식을 근대기 불교 조각의 특징으로 상정하였다. 그 외에 광배에 새겨진 6글자의 범자(梵字)를 그동안 육자대명왕진언(六字大明王眞言)으로 해석했으나, 정법계진언(淨法界眞言)과 사방진언(四方眞言)이 조합된 것임을 새롭게 밝혔다. 아울러 처마 바위에 박혀 있는 3개의 쇠고리는 제작 과정에서 다림추를 달아 초를 그릴 때 기준점으로 활용하였고, 이후에는 고리에 풍탁을 달아 보살상을 장엄하는 용도로 사용한 것을 확인하였다.

• 헤리티지:역사와 과학
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• 제52권2호
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• pp.292-307
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• 2019

불교에서는 부처의 위엄, 부처의 세계가 멀리 있는 것이 아님을 보여주는 방편으로 불상과 그 주변을 아름답게 꾸몄다. 여기에 이용된 각종 불구를 장엄구라고 한다. 장엄구는 불상을 꾸미는 장신구, 광배, 보개, 번 등 다양하며, 건물 밖에 걸었던 풍탁 또한 불교 장엄구의 일종이다. 풍탁은 지금까지도 사원에서 널리 쓰이는 불교 장엄구이다. 중국에서는 낙양 영녕사 목탑, 둔황석굴 등으로 미루어 보아 적어도 6세기 무렵에는 이미 풍탁을 사용한 것으로 보인다. 우리나라 불교사원은 삼국시대에 중국에서 불교가 전래한 것과 동시에 지어졌으므로 사원 건물에 매다는 풍탁도 사원 조성과 그 시작이 크게 다르지 않을 것으로 보인다. 현존하는 가장 이른 풍탁은 백제 미륵사지 <금동풍탁>이다. 우리나라 풍탁은 입면에 따라 종형과 제형으로 구분된다. 이는 옆 변의 형태에 따라 세분화할 수 있다. 종형과 제형 풍탁은 시대가 흐르면서 서로에게 영향을 주었는데, 이러한 모습이 고려시대 풍탁에 가장 잘 드러나고 있다. 고려시대 풍탁은 이전의 형식, 구조, 의장 등을 계승하면서도 기술적으로 발전을 도모하고, 자유로우면서도 과하지 않은 의장을 표현하였다. 특히 고려 소종의 입상연판문대(立狀蓮瓣文帶), 왕실의 위엄을 드러내는 불문(?文), 고려 향로 속 삼환문(三環文)과 범자문(梵字文), 석조물의 창호문(窓戶文) 등 동 시기의 불교 미술품과의 교류를 짐작하게 하는 의장은 고려시대 풍탁에서 가장 두드러지는 부분이다. 이처럼 고려 풍탁은 특정한 규격에 얽매이지 않으면서도 그 역할에 충실했던 것으로 보인다. 본 연구는 지금까지 확인된 우리나라 풍탁을 조사한 결과 고려시대에 제작된 것이 가장 비중이 높다는 점에서 시작되었다. 풍탁 연구는 다른 불교 장엄구에 비해 미진한 실정이기에 가장 많은 고려시대 풍탁을 기반으로 이루어져야 한다고 생각한다. 우선 풍탁이 왜 만들어졌는지를 살펴보고 우리나라 풍탁의 형식을 알아보겠다. 이를 토대로 고려시대 풍탁의 시기별 전개와 특징을 고찰하고자 한다.

• 동남아시아연구
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• 제20권3호
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• pp.263-297
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• 2010

The relics of the Southeast Asian civilizations in the first phase are found with the relics from India, China, and even further West of Persia and Rome. These relics are the historic marks of the ancient interactions of various continents, mainly through the maritime trade. The traces of the indic culture, which appears in the historic age, are represented in the textual records and arts, regarded as the essence of the India itself. The ancient Hindu arts found in various locations of Southeast Asia were thought to be transplanted directly from India. However, Neither did the Gupta Hindu Art of India form the mainstream of the Gupta Art, nor did it play an influential role in the adjacent areas. The Indian culture was transmitted to Southeast Asia rather intermittently than consistently. If we thoroughly compare the early Hindu art of India and that of Southeast Asia, we can find that the latter was influenced by the former, but still sustained Southeast Asian originality. The reason that the earliest Southeast Asian Hindu art is discovered mostly in continental Southeast Asia is resulted from the fact that the earliest networks between India and the region were constructed in this region. Among the images of Hindu gods produced before the 7th century are Shiva, Vishnu, Harihara, and Skanda(the son of Shiva), and Ganesha(the god of wealth). The earliest example of Vishnu was sculpted according to the Kushan style. After that, most of the sculptures came to have robust figures and graceful proportions. There are a small number of images of Ganesha and Skanda. These images strictly follow the iconography of the Indian sculpture. This shows that Southeast Asians chose their own Hindu gods from the Hindu pantheon selectively and devoted their faiths to them. Their basic iconography obediently followed the Indian model, but they tried to transform parts of the images within the Southeast Asian contexts. However, it is very difficult to understand the process of the development of the Hindu faith and its contents in the ancient Southeast Asia. It is because there are very few undamaged Hindu temples left in Southeast Asia. It is also difficult to make sure that the Hindu religion of India, which was based on the complex rituals and the caste system, was transplanted to Southeast Asia, because there were no such strong basis of social structure and religion in the region. "Indianization" is an organized expansion of the Indian culture based on the sense of belonging to an Indian context. This can be defined through the process of transmission and progress of the Hindu or Buddhist religions, legends about purana, and the influx of various epic expression and its development. Such conditions are represented through the Sanskrit language and the art. It is the element of the Indian culture to fabricate an image of god as a devotional object. However, if we look into details of the iconography, style, and religious culture, these can be understood as a "selective reception of foreign religious culture." There were no sophisticated social structure yet to support the Indian culture to continue in Southeast Asia around the 7th century. Whether this phenomena was an "Indianization" or the "influx of elements of Indian culture," it was closely related to the matter of 'localization.' The regional character of each local region in Southeast Asia is partially shown after the 8th century. However it is not clear whether this culture was settled in each region as its dominant culture. The localization of the Indian culture in Southeast Asia which acted as a network connecting ports or cities was a part of the process of localization of Indian culture in pan-Southeast Asian region, and the process of the building of the basis for establishing an identity for each Southeast Asian region.

• 대한한의학원전학회지
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• 제20권4호
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• pp.91-117
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• 2007

Through a simple study of the medical classics in the '$\bar{A}yurveda$', we have summarized them as follows. 1) Traditional Indian medicine started in the Ganges river area at about 1500 B. C. E. and traces of medical science can be found in the "Rigveda" and "Atharvaveda". 2) The "Charaka" and "$Su\acute{s}hruta$(妙聞集)", ancient texts from India, are not the work of one person, but the result of the work and errors of different doctors and philosophers. Due to the lack of historical records, the time of Charaka or $Su\acute{s}hruta$(妙聞)s' lives are not exactly known. So the completion of the "Charaka" is estimated at 1st${\sim}$2nd century C. E. in northwestern India, and the "$Su\acute{s}hruta$" is estimated to have been completed in 3rd${\sim}$4th century C. E. in central India. Also, the "Charaka" contains details on internal medicine, while the "$Su\acute{s}hruta$" contains more details on surgery by comparison. 3) '$V\bar{a}gbhata$', one of the revered Vriddha Trayi(triad of the ancients, 三醫聖) of the '$\bar{A}yurveda$', lived and worked in about the 7th century and wrote the "$A\d{s}\d{t}\bar{a}nga$ $A\d{s}\d{t}\bar{a}nga$ $h\d{r}daya$ $sa\d{m}hit\bar{a}$ $samhit\bar{a}$(八支集)" and "$A\d{s}\d{t}\bar{a}nga$ Sangraha $samhit\bar{a}$(八心集)", where he tried to compromise and unify the "Charaka" and "$Su\acute{s}hruta$". The "$A\d{s}\d{t}\bar{a}nga$ Sangraha $samhit\bar{a}$" was translated into Tibetan and Arabic at about the 8th${\sim}$9th century, and if we generalize the medicinal plants recorded in each the "Charaka", "$Su\acute{s}hruta$" and the "$A\d{s}\d{t}\bar{a}nga$ Sangraha $samhit\bar{a}$", there are 240, 370, 240 types each. 4) The 'Madhava' focused on one of the subjects of Indian medicine, '$Nid\bar{a}na$' ie meaning "the cause of diseases(病因論)", and in one of the copies found by Bower in 4th century C. E. we can see that it uses prescriptions from the "BuHaLaJi(布哈拉集)", "Charaka", "$Su\acute{s}hruta$". 5) According to the "Charaka", there were 8 branches of ancient medicine in India : treatment of the body(kayacikitsa), special surgery(salakya), removal of alien substances(salyapahartka), treatment of poison or mis-combined medicines(visagaravairodhikaprasamana), the study of ghosts(bhutavidya), pediatrics(kaumarabhrtya), perennial youth and long life(rasayana), and the strengthening of the essence of the body(vajikarana). 6) The '$\bar{A}yurveda$', which originated from ancient experience, was recorded in Sanskrit, which was a theorization of knowledge, and also was written in verses to make memorizing easy, and made medicine the exclusive possession of the Brahmin. The first annotations were 1060 for the "Charaka", 1200 for the "$Su\acute{s}hruta$", 1150 for the "$A\d{s}\d{t}\bar{a}nga$ Sangraha $samhit\bar{a}$", and 1100 for the "$Nid\bar{a}na$", The use of various mineral medicines in the "Charaka" or the use of mercury as internal medicine in the "$A\d{s}\d{t}\bar{a}nga$ Sangraha $samhit\bar{a}$", and the palpation of the pulse for diagnosing in the '$\bar{A}yurveda$' and 'XiZhang(西藏)' medicine are similar to TCM's pulse diagnostics. The coexistence with Arabian 'Unani' medicine, compromise with western medicine and the reactionism trend restored the '$\bar{A}yurveda$' today. 7) The "Charaka" is a book inclined to internal medicine that investigates the origin of human disease which used the dualism of the 'Samkhya', the natural philosophy of the 'Vaisesika' and the logic of the 'Nyaya' in medical theories, and its structure has 16 syllables per line, 2 lines per poem and is recorded in poetry and prose. Also, the "Charaka" can be summarized into the introduction, cause, judgement, body, sensory organs, treatment, pharmaceuticals, and end, and can be seen as a work that strongly reflects the moral code of Brahmin and Aryans. 8) In extracting bloody pus, the "Charaka" introduces a 'sharp tool' bloodletting treatment, while the "$Su\scute{s}hruta$" introduces many surgical methods such as the use of gourd dippers, horns, sucking the blood with leeches. Also the "$Su\acute{s}hruta$" has 19 chapters specializing in ophthalmology, and shows 76 types of eye diseases and their treatments. 9) Since anatomy did not develop in Indian medicine, the inner structure of the human body was not well known. The only exception is 'GuXiangXue(骨相學)' which developed from 'Atharvaveda' times and the "$A\d{s}\d{t}\bar{a}nga$ Sangraha $samhit\bar{a}$". In the "$A\d{s}\d{t}\bar{a}nga$ Sangraha $samhit\bar{a}$"'s 'ShenTiLun(身體論)' there is a thorough listing of the development of a child from pregnancy to birth. The '$\bar{A}yurveda$' is not just an ancient traditional medical system but is being called alternative medicine in the west because of its ability to supplement western medicine and, as its effects are being proved scientifically it is gaining attention worldwide. We would like to say that what we have researched is just a small fragment and a limited view, and would like to correct and supplement any insufficient parts through more research of new records.

• 동국한의학연구소논문집
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• 제10권
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• pp.119-145
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• 2008

Through a simple study of the medical classics in the '$\bar{A}yurveda$', we have summarized them as follows. 1) Traditional Indian medicine started in the Ganges river area at about 1500 B. C. E. and traces of medical science can be found in the "Rigveda" and "Atharvaveda". 2) The "Charaka(閣羅迦集)" and "$Su\acute{s}hruta$(妙聞集)", ancient texts from India, are not the work of one person, but the result of the work and errors of different doctors and philosophers. Due to the lack of historical records, the time of Charaka(閣羅迦) or $Su\acute{s}hruta$(妙聞)s' lives are not exactly known. So the completion of the "Charaka" is estimated at 1st$\sim$2nd century C. E. in northwestern India, and the "$Su\acute{s}hruta$" is estimated to have been completed in 3rd$\sim$4th century C. E. in central India. Also, the "Charaka" contains details on internal medicine, while the "$Su\acute{s}hruta$" contains more details on surgery by comparison. 3) '$V\bar{a}gbhata$', one of the revered Vriddha Trayi(triad of the ancients, 三醫聖) of the '$\bar{A}yurveda$', lived and worked in about the 7th century and wrote the "$Ast\bar{a}nga$ $Ast\bar{a}nga$ hrdaya $samhit\bar{a}$ $samhit\bar{a}$(八支集) and "$Ast\bar{a}nga$ Sangraha $samhit\bar{a}$(八心集)", where he tried to compromise and unify the "Charaka" and "$Su\acute{s}hruta$". The "$Ast\bar{a}nga$ Sangraha $samhit\bar{a}$" was translated into Tibetan and Arabic at about the 8th$\sim$9th century, and if we generalize the medicinal plants recorded in each the "Charaka", "$Su\acute{s}hruta$" and the "$Ast\bar{a}nga$ Sangraha $samhit\bar{a}$", there are 240, 370, 240 types each. 4) The 'Madhava' focused on one of the subjects of Indian medicine, '$Nid\bar{a}na$' ie meaning "the cause of diseases(病因論)", and in one of the copies found by Bower in 4th century C. E. we can see that it uses prescriptions from the "BuHaLaJi(布唅拉集)", "Charaka", "$Su\acute{s}hruta$". 5) According to the "Charaka", there were 8 branches of ancient medicine in India : treatment of the body(kayacikitsa), special surgery(salakya), removal of alien substances(salyapahartka), treatment of poison or mis-combined medicines(visagaravairodhikaprasamana), the study of ghosts(bhutavidya), pediatrics(kaumarabhrtya), perennial youth and long life(rasayana), and the strengthening of the essence of the body(vajikarana). 6) The '$\bar{A}yurveda$', which originated from ancient experience, was recorded in Sanskrit, which was a theorization of knowledge, and also was written in verses to make memorizing easy, and made medicine the exclusive possession of the Brahmin. The first annotations were 1060 for the "Charaka", 1200 for the "$Su\acute{s}hruta$", 1150 for the "$Ast\bar{a}nga$ Sangraha $samhit\bar{a}$", and 1100 for the "$Nid\bar{a}na$". The use of various mineral medicines in the "Charaka" or the use of mercury as internal medicine in the "$Ast\bar{a}nga$ Sangraha $samhit\bar{a}$", and the palpation of the pulse for diagnosing in the '$\bar{A}yurveda$' and 'XiZhang(西藏)' medicine are similar to TCM's pulse diagnostics. The coexistence with Arabian 'Unani' medicine, compromise with western medicine and the reactionism trend restored the '$\bar{A}yurveda$' today. 7) The "Charaka" is a book inclined to internal medicine that investigates the origin of human disease which used the dualism of the 'Samkhya', the natural philosophy of the 'Vaisesika' and the logic of the 'Nyaya' in medical theories, and its structure has 16 syllables per line, 2 lines per poem and is recorded in poetry and prose. Also, the "Charaka" can be summarized into the introduction, cause, judgement, body, sensory organs, treatment, pharmaceuticals, and end, and can be seen as a work that strongly reflects the moral code of Brahmin and Aryans. 8) In extracting bloody pus, the "Charaka" introduces a 'sharp tool' bloodletting treatment, while the "$Su\acute{s}hruta$" introduces many surgical methods such as the use of gourd dippers, horns, sucking the blood with leeches. Also the "$Su\acute{s}hruta$" has 19 chapters specializing in ophthalmology, and shows 76 types of eye diseases and their treatments. 9) Since anatomy did not develop in Indian medicine, the inner structure of the human body was not well known. The only exception is 'GuXiangXue(骨相學)' which developed from 'Atharvaveda' times and the "$Ast\bar{a}nga$ Sangraha $samhit\bar{a}$". In the "$Ast\bar{a}nga$ Sangraha $samhit\bar{a}$"'s 'ShenTiLun(身體論)' there is a thorough listing of the development of a child from pregnancy to birth. The '$\bar{A}yurveda$' is not just an ancient traditional medical system but is being called alternative medicine in the west because of its ability to supplement western medicine and, as its effects are being proved scientifically it is gaining attention worldwide. We would like to say that what we have researched is just a small fragment and a limited view, and would like to correct and supplement any insufficient parts through more research of new records.