• Bulletin of the Korean Chemical Society
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• v.33 no.12
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• pp.4173-4179
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• 2012

From Neungsalli Temple located in Buyeo, ancient glass vessel fragments were discovered along with hundreds of glass beads. In this research, we used SEM-EDS to analyze glass vessel fragments and beads excavated from Neungsalli Temple. Then, we analyzed their chemical composition and examined their characteristics. In particular, we investigated a relationship between glass vessels from Neungsalli temple and Hwangnamdaechong (South tomb). The result of our experiment showed that the glass artifacts from Neungsalli temple were all soda glass. To be specific, the vessel fragments were soda-lime glass and spherical beads were high-alumina soda glass. Then, we compared glass vessel fragments from Neungsalli temple to glass vessels excavated from Hwangnamdaechong. Glass vessels from both sites turned out to be soda lime glass. We classified them further based on raw material used for soda - natron and marine plant ash.

• Journal of architectural history
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• v.25 no.3
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• pp.63-70
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• 2016

This paper aimed to identify a main-path remains in the Hwangnyongsa temple site based on studying published the excavation survey report and researching relics related to the path in the ancient temple site. Hwngnyongsa temple, there were three type's paved footway, straight path to the central axis line of the layout, outside path around the main buildings and the front square of the lecture hall. These remains were expected that installed for some purposes, such as marches, touring, sort of a Buddhist ceremony been performed at the time of Silla. Straight path shows there were two rows of the main access inside the roofed corridor. A row consisted of the 2~3 pieces processed stone(Jangdaeseok) altogether with 92cm width and combined with square stone and stepping stone on the end of the road. It is regarded as very characteristic form and one of the architectural elements of Hwangnyongsa temple in Unified Silla period.

• Journal of architectural history
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• v.25 no.3
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• pp.47-62
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• 2016

The purpose of this study is to clarify the characteristics of Zen Buddhist temple's building composition of the Northern Song dynasty, through the analysis of literature historical material, such as Seonwon chenggyu(禪苑淸規), Cham cheontae odaesan gi(參天台五臺山記) and so on. The building composition method of Zen Buddhist temple in Northern Song dynasty, which grasped from the Seonwon chenggyu, reflects the actual situation of the temples in that time. And it was ascertained that, the Zen Buddhist temple's building composition of the Northern Song dynasty was basically same to that of Southern Song dynasty. And the comparative analysis was attempted between Zen Buddhist temples and that of other Buddhism sect described in Cham cheontae odaesan gi. From this analysis, the common features as Buddhism temple and the characteristics of building composition as Zen Buddhist temple was clarified.

• Journal of the Korean association of regional geographers
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• v.7 no.4
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• pp.65-80
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• 2001

The purpose of this study is to examine the characteristics of the location and the layout of Donghwa temple(桐華寺) in Kyungbuk Province from feng-shui perspective. Feng-shui is a traditional geographic thought in China and Korea. It is necessary to understand feng-shui in order to understand Korean landscape and cultural geography. Feng-shui had had a tremendous impact on Korean landscape through selective buildings of cities, settlements, houses, monuments, temples, pagodas, and so on. In this study, I interpret the geomantic characteristics of Dinghwa temple in Kyungbuk Province. The results of this study are as follow. 1) Donghwa temple is carrying the mountain on the back and belting the water in front. The mountains which encircle the auspicious place are accordance with the feng-shui theory. The watercourse which flows the temple is suitable. The feng-shui spot is located at the foot of the mountain with surrounding mountains and a watercourse in front. 2) Many feng-shui texts discuss the types of surrounding mountain in detail and morphologically describe them with certain auspicious objects. In case of Donghwa temple, it can be compared to a phoenix carrying eggs in the bosom. This is a morphological marker for the description of configulation features of Donghwa temple. In the case of Donghwa temple, we can observe geomantic landscape for the purpose of fulfilling the geomantic harmony of the temple. Also the impact of feng-shui on vegetation is identified in Donghwa temple. 3) For the management of good feng-shui condition, and for the maintaining the harmony between the building layout and surrounding landform, some proposals are suggested.

• Journal of the Korean Institute of Traditional Landscape Architecture
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• v.37 no.2
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• pp.74-88
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• 2019

This study developed the Assessment Indicator evaluating eco-cultural value of temple forest in Korea and applied the developed Assessment Indicator to Songgwang-sa(also known as Seungbo-sachal), one of the Three Jewels Temple. Literature reviews and the draft of Assessment Indicator were drawn from brainstorming(including 2 forest therapy experts, 1 Buddhist monk expert, 1 landscape architect, 1 forest expert, and 6 researchers). After that, the Assessment Indicator drawn from the group of experts(the 1st in-depth interview: 32 people, the 2nd in-depth interview: 30 people) was verified and revised. The final Assessment Indicator, which was composed of 4 parts and 20 items, was developed. The results are as follows. The eco-cultural Assessment Indicator of temple forest was composed of 4 parts, which were Historical Cultural value, Ecological value, Recreatory Visitational value, and Educational Useful value, and 20 items and each item had 5 points. Historical Cultural value had 5 items and its total points were 25. Ecological value had 5 items and had total 25 points. Recreatory Visitational value had 6 items, 30 total points. Educational Useful value had 4 items, 20 total points. The total points of the eco-cultural Assessment Indicator were 100 points. As a result of applying the developed Assessment Indicator to the target place, Songgwang-sa in Mt. Jogye, Historical Cultural value of temple forest was calculated as 23 points(out of 25). Ecological value was 21 point(out of 25), Recreatory Visitational value, 22 points(out of 30), and Educational Useful value, 16 points(out of 20). The total points were 82(out of 100). Consequently, this study is meaningful based on the following 5 aspects. Firstly, this study challenged the development of the eco-cultural Assessment Indicator of temple forest for the first time. It is significant because the developed Assessment Indicator can be a useful resource for the eco-cultural value of temple forest. Secondly, the result showed that Educational Useful value and Recreatory Visitational value of forest temple were very low. Therefore, the supports for leisure, tour, education, and use of temple forest are needed from Korea Forest Service, Ministry of Environment, Cultural Heritage Administration and other government agencies since they acknowledge the temple forest as the best customers in Korea. Thirdly, the excellence or for eco-cultural value of temple forest needs to be extended in a national level. It is possible to make a Korean National Bran(e.g., the Therapy at the Temple) by blending temple stay, which is only in temples, and therapy, and is also possible to be a global tour industry. Fourthly, this study suggested legal definition about the necessary of legal definition for temple forest because there is no legal definition on temple forest in the current situation. When the definition of temple forest is legally arranaged, it would be a foundation for conserving eco-cultural value of temple forest, for organizing exclusively responsible departments in governmental institutions, and further for registering temple forest as World Natural Heritage. Lastly, the developed eco-cultural Assessment Indicators of temple forest from this study would be applied to "the 7 Sansa, Buddhist Mountain Monasteries in Korea(Sansa)" and the characteristics of each 7 temple are drawn. This study would be a basic data for temples' management and use with the eco-cultural Assessment Indicator of temple forest.

• MISULJARYO - National Museum of Korea Art Journal
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• v.100
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• pp.50-80
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• 2021

This paper critically examines the history of the theories connected to the Wongaksa Temple Pagoda that have developed over the last 100 years focusing on the original number of stories the pagoda would have reached. Part II of this paper retraces the dynamic process of the rediscovery of the Wongaksa Temple Pagoda by Westerners who traveled to Korea during the port-opening period. Koreans at the time viewed the Wongaksa Temple Pagoda as an object of no particular appeal or even as an eyesore. However, Westerners appreciated it as a wonder or magnificent sight. Since these Westerners had almost no prior knowledge of Buddhist pagodas, they were able to write objective travelogues. At the time, these visitors generally accepted the theory common among Joseon intellectuals that Wongaksa Temple Pagoda once had thirteen stories. Part III focuses on Japanese government-affiliated scholars' academic research on the Wongaksa Temple Pagoda after the proclamation of the Korean Empire and the Japanese Government-General of Korea's subsequent management of the pagoda as a cultural property during the colonial era. It also discusses issues with Japanese academic research and management. In particular, this portion sheds light on the shift in theories about the original number of stories of the Wongaksa Temple Pagoda from the ten-story theory supported by Sekino Tadashi (關野 貞), whose ideas have held a great influence on this issue over the last 100 years, to the thirteen-story theory and then to the idea that it had more than thirteen. Finally, Part IV addresses the change from the multi-story theory to the ten-story theory in the years after Korea's liberation from Japan until 1962. Moreover, it highlights how Korean intellectuals of the Japanese colonial era predominantly accepted the thirteen-story theory. Since 1962, a considerable quantity of significant research on the Wongaksa Temple Pagoda has been published. However, since most of these studies have applied the ten-story theory suggested in 1962, they are not individually discussed in this paper. This retracing of the history of theories about the Wongaksa Temple Pagoda has verified that although there are reasonable grounds for supporting the thirteen-story theory, it has not been proved in the last 100 years. Moreover, the number of pagoda stories has not been fully discussed in academia. The common theory that both Wongaksa Temple Pagoda and Gyeongcheonsa Temple Pagoda were ten-story pagodas was first formulated by Sekino Tadashi 100 years ago. Since the abrasion of the Wongaksa Temple Stele was so severe the inscriptions on the stele were almost illegible, Sekino argued that the Wongaksa Temple Pagoda was a ten-story pagoda based on an architectural analysis of the then-current condition of the pagoda. Immediately after Sekino presented his argument, a woodblock-printed version of the inscriptions on the Wongaksa Temple Stele was found. This version included a phrase that a thirteen-story pagoda had been erected. In a similar vein, the Dongguk yeoji seungnam (Geographic Encyclopedia of Korea) published by the orders of King Seongjong in the late fifteenth century documented that Gyeongcheonsa Temple Pagoda, the model for the Wongaksa Temple Pagoda, was also a thirteen-story pagoda. The Wongaksa Temple Stele erected on the orders of King Sejo after the establishment of the Wongaksa Temple Pagoda evidently shows that Sekino's ten-story premise is flawed. Sekino himself wrote that "as [the pagoda] consists of a three-story stereobate and a ten-story body, people call it a thirteen-story pagoda," although he viewed the number of stories of the pagoda body as that of the entire pagoda. The inscriptions on the Wongaksa Temple Stele also clearly indicate that the king ordered the construction of the Wongaksa Temple Pagoda as a thirteen-story pagoda. Although unprecedented, this thirteen-story pagoda comprised a ten-story pagoda body over a three-story stereobate. Why would King Sejo have built a thirteen-story pagoda in an unusual form consisting of a ten-story body on top of a three-story stereobate? In order to fully understand King Sejo's intention in building a thirteen-story pagoda, analyzing the Wongaksa Temple Pagoda is necessary. This begins with the restoration of its original name. I disprove Sekino's ten-story theory built upon flawed premises and an eclectic over-thirteen-story theory and urge applying the thirteen-story theory, as the inscriptions on the Wongaksa Temple Stele stated that the pagoda was originally built as a thirteen-story pagoda.

• Journal of Environmental Impact Assessment
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• v.17 no.5
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• pp.263-270
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• 2008

The purpose of this study was to investigate the characteristics of the temple wastes and suggest the waste management guidelines for temples in natural parks. Study results revealed four important findings. First, it was found that the average quantity of the total temple wastes was 85,786g/day which was composed of general wastes(44,617g/day), food wastes(20,292g/day), recycling wastes(20.825g/day), and buddhist service wastes(60g/day). The average generation per capita of the temple wastes was 1,511g/capita day and the average bulk density was 0.102kg/l. Second, the food scrap was of small quantity(72.5g/day) because the traditional buddhist eating method, "Baru meal(鉢盂供養)" prohibits food abuse. This amount is very little compared to that produced in the general household in Korea. Third, the average quantity of the buddhist service wastes was 300-1,650g/one time. This wastes occupied 0.07% of the total temple wastes. Fourth, the average waste generated by visitors was 182.8g/person, which occupied 87.1% of the total temple wastes and costed 52,100,000 Wons to treat.

• Journal of architectural history
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• v.24 no.1
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• pp.61-70
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• 2015

This is a study on the construction of the Heungcheon-Temple. The results are follows. 1) The Heungcheon-Temple was anticipated to be the Jeongneung. However, when completed, the Heungcheon-Temple was symbolized Buddhism; moreover, there was a stupa enshrined sarira. The stupa was a land mark in Hanyang. While king Sejong repaired the stupa, it disappeared during the regin of King Jungjong. Before it disappeared the stupa signified a Buddhist event and a rite of good fortune. 2) The stupa was constructed using a double-frame, and there was a stone-stupa in an octagonal multi-layer temple. This single location consisted of a sarira space and a worship space. 3) Buddhist Relic(Sarira) worship was to witness holiness and therefore reics could be moved according to need. It appeared as though Buddhist Relic worship occurred in Southeast Asia. 4) The Heungcheon-Temple stupa was considered a new and superior architectural-symbol to comfort people and recognize the new order of Ming and neo-Confucianism. Therefore, the stupa was a good alternative to politics, religion, and external relations during the early Joseon era.

• Journal of architectural history
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• v.30 no.2
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• pp.55-70
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• 2021

The Sacheonwangsa temple was established in 670 under the leadership of Myeongnyang in response to the invasion of the Tang Dynasty. At this time, Geumdang hall stylobate was constructed, which was about 30% smaller than the reconstruction. Due to the wartime situation, the construction of wooden buildings did not seem to have been achieved. The Sacheonwangsa temple was reconstructed in 679 as a symbol of the Hoguk(護國) temple. The size of the Geumdang Hall stylobate was planned as an important module for the entire temple. The stylobate fasad was designed at intervals of Tangju(撑柱), just like the JuKhan(柱間) plan of wooden architecture. There is a possibility that eight Devas may have been decorated in Front fasad. When the Sacheonwangsa Temple was rebuilt, the Geumdang Hall was added by the ChayangKhan(遮陽間) and an Ikrang(翼廊) was installed next to it. These changes affect the material and form of the stylobate. It was changed to a durable stone post-lintel style stylobate and the intervals of Tangju(撑柱) in Front fasad was also adjusted. As the highest-quality stylobate in East Asia at the time, the Geumdang Hall stylobate is considered to have taken Silla's architectural skills to the next level.

• Journal of architectural history
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• v.30 no.6
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• pp.7-22
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• 2021

This study was prepared to understand the changes in the stylobate and the characteristics of contrasting with the wooden pagoda of Hwangnyongsa Temple, which occupies an important position in ancient architecture. Literature data related to the wooden pagoda of Hwangnyongsa Temple, excavation data, and newly identified stylobate stone were examined.The reconstruction period of the wooden pagoda of Hwangnyongsa Temple, the size and form of the stylobate, the plan of the stylobate, the height plan, and the elevation plan were reviewed one after another.Since its foundation in 646, the wooden pagoda of Hwangnyongsa Temple has been rebuilt during the reign of King Gyeongmun in 873 and a stylobate has been rebuilt. Through the analysis of similar cases with the wooden pagoda's face stone members, the elevation of the stylobate was proved. It is estimated that the size and format of the wooden pagoda stylobate were similar to those of the reconstruction stylobate. It seems that the Sumijwa style stylobate was first introduced to the foundation of the wooden pagoda of Hwangnyongsa Temple. This is of great significance in that it provided a fundamental motif for the stylobate of architecture and stone architecture of the Unified Silla period.