• 한국산학기술학회논문지
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• 제18권12호
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• pp.521-528
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• 2017

과도한 음주는 치매 및 알츠하이머 병과 같은 여러 신경계 질환을 일으키는 주요원인 중 하나로 알려져 있으며 이를 해결하기 위한 많은 노력인 진행 중이다. 또한, 홍삼은 신경 세포의 생존, 세포 자멸사의 억제 및 신경 세포의 신경 재생을 향상시키는 것으로 알려져 있다. 본 연구의 목적은 Rg3 풍부 고려홍삼 추출액(KRG)이 알코올 유발성 신경독성으로 인하여 일어나는 PC12 세포의 세포 사멸을 억제 할 수 있는지, 그리고 KRG가 caspase 매개 경로와 관련된 몇 가지 인자들을 어떻게 조절하는지 확인하는 것이다. 그 방법으로, 우리는 PC12 세포에서의 세포 생존율과 세포 사멸율은 EZ-Cytox 세포 생존율 측정 kit와 유세포 분석기로 측정하였고, 세포 자멸 관련 단백질(Bcl-2, Bax, caspase-3)의 발현 정도를 Western blot기법으로 측정하였으며, 측정된 결과의 유의성을 ANOVA 분석법으로 확인하였다. 그 결과, KRG는 Bcl-2의 발현을 증가시키고, Bid와 Bax 및 caspase-3 발현을 저해하였고, 이를 통해 알코올로 유도된 PC12 세포의 세포 사멸을 억제하였다. 이러한 결과를 통해, KRG에 의해 유도된 Bcl-2 발현의 증가와 Bid 및 Bax 발현의 하향 조절이 caspase-3 발현을 하향 조절하고, 결국 미토콘드리아 세포 사멸 경로를 억제한다는 것을 결론내릴 수 있었다. 본 연구는 향 후, KRG가 신경 보호제 후보로서 개발할 가치가 있음을 제시하였다.

• Journal of Ginseng Research
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• 제42권4호
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• pp.571-576
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• 2018

Background: Korean Red Ginseng (KRG) has been used in Asia for its various biological effects, but no studies have investigated the safety of its long-term intake. Therefore, the present study evaluated the safety of KRG intake for 24 weeks. Methods: We randomized 1,000 participants in a 1:1 ratio into two groups, which were treated daily with 2 g of KRG or a placebo for 24 weeks. The primary endpoint was all adverse events and adverse drug reactions (ADRs) that occurred after KRG or placebo administration, which were reported at week 4, 12, and 24 after the baseline visit. Results: In total, 192 and 211 participants experienced adverse events in the KRG and placebo groups (39.2% and 42.0%, respectively; p = 0.361), and 59 and 57 KRG- and placebo-treated individuals reported ADRs (12.0% and 11.4%, respectively; p = 0.737). The frequently occurring ADRs were pruritus (2.0%), headache (1.6%), diarrhea (1.4%), and dizziness (1.2%) in the KRG group and pruritus (2.0%), headache (1.8%), dizziness (1.6%), rash (1.4%), and diarrhea (1.2%) in the placebo group. Discontinuation of drug administration due to ADRs was reported in 13 participants, six (1.2%) and seven (1.4%) in the KRG and placebo groups, respectively (p = 0.814). No significant abnormal changes were revealed by anthropometric, laboratory, and vital sign measurements in the KRG group compared with those in the placebo group. Conclusion: The present study confirms the safety and tolerability of daily intake of 2 g of KRG for 24 weeks by healthy adults.

• Journal of Ginseng Research
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• 제43권4호
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• pp.676-683
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• 2019

Background: Korean Red Ginseng (KRG) is widely used for strengthening the immune system and fighting fatigue, especially in people with deficiency syndrome. However, there is concern that the long-term application or a high dose of KRG can cause "fireness" (上火 in Chinese) because of its "dryness" (燥性 in Chinese). The aim of this study was to assess the safety and efficacy of a 4-week treatment with KRG in participants with deficiency syndrome. Methods: This was a 4-week, randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled clinical trial. A total of 180 Chinese participants were randomly allocated to three groups: placebo control group, participants were given a placebo, 3.6 g/d; KRG 1.8 g and 3.6 g groups. The primary outcomes were the changes in fireness and safety evaluation (adverse events, laboratory tests, and electrocardiogram). The secondary outcomes were the efficacy of KRG on fatigue, which include the following: traditional Chinese medicine (TCM) symptom scale and fatigue self-assessment scale. Results: Of the 180 patients, 174 completed the full study. After 4 weeks of KRG treatment, the Fire-heat symptoms score including Excess fire-heat score and Deficient fire-heat score showed no significant change as compared with placebo treatment, and no clinically significant changes in any safety parameter were observed. Based on the TCM syndrome score and fatigue self-assessment score, TCM symptoms and fatigue were greatly improved after treatment with KRG, which showed a dose- and time-dependent effect. The total effective rate was also significantly increased in the KRG groups. Conclusion: Our study revealed that KRG has a potent antifatigue effect without significant adverse effects in people with deficiency syndrome. Although a larger sample size and longer treatment may be required for a more definite conclusion, this clinical trial is the first to disprove the common conception of "fireness" related to KRG.

• Nutrition Research and Practice
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• 제8권3호
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• pp.284-291
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• 2014

BACKGROUND/OBJECTIVES: The aim of this study was to investigate the effects of exercise (EX) and Korean red ginseng (KRG) on inflammation mechanism in aging model rats with diet-induced atherosclerosis. MATERIALS/METHODS: Forty-eight male Sprague-Dawley rats were divided into 6 groups: Young control (Y-C), Aging control (A-C), A-C with HFD (AHF), AHF with EX (AHF-EX), AHF-EX with KRG (AHF-EX+RG), and AHF with KRG (AHF-RG). Aging was induced by D-gal (100mg/kg) and atherosclerosis was induced by HFD (60% fat) for 9 weeks. The experimental rats were performed swimming (60 min/day, 5 days/week) and supplied KRG orally (dose of 200 mg/kg) for 8 weeks. All rat aorta samples were harvested for biochemical and immunohistochemical analyses. REULTS: The EX and KRG supplementation significantly inhibited body weight and levels of TC, TG, LDL-C, and enhance of HDL-C compared with untreated AHF groups. AHF-EX, AHF-EX+RG, and AHF-RG group showed a decreased plasma CRP and increase plasma NO activities compared to AHF group. In addition, these groups revealed reduced 4-HNE, NF-kB, TNF-, ${\alpha}$, IL-6, COX-2, ICAM-1, VCAM-1 and enhanced eNOS expression in the aorta. CONCLUSION: These results suggest that EX alone, KRG alone, and combined treatment of EX and KRG may be an effective anti-inflammatory therapeutic for the atherosclerosis, possibly acting via the decreased of CRP and pro-inflammation proteins and the increased NO and eNOS.

• Journal of Ginseng Research
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• 제35권4호
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• pp.413-420
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• 2011

We investigated whether Korean red ginseng (KRG) and highly active antiretroviral therapy (HAART) affect the frequency of gross deletion in 5'LTR/gag in 20 hemophiliacs. This study is a prospective study in 20 hemophiliacs who were infected with Korean subclade B of HIV-1 from two cash-paid plasma donors in 1990. Over a 13-year period, we obtained 436 amplicons of 5'LTR/gag genes by nested polymerase chain reaction using 147 peripheral blood mononuclear cells. Of the 436 amplicons, 92 (21.1%) showed gross deletion in 5'LTR/gag. Despite of a 2.3-fold higher monthly dose of KRG intake, the frequency of gross deletion in 5'LTR/gag (16.4%) was significantly decreased during HAART compared with 28.1% prior to HAART (p<0.01). Gross deletion in 5'LTR/gag was 10% more detected on KRG-therapy than prior to KRG-therapy (p<0.05). In addition, we also obtained 28 amplicons containing premature stop codon or isoleucine at initiation codon of 254 amplicons sequenced on KRG intake (7.5%) or HAART (13.6%) compared with 0% before KRG intake. These findings indicate that high frequency of gross deletion in 5'LTR/gag and genetic defects prior to HAART are significantly associated with KRG intake and the detection of gross deletion in 5'LTR/gag is decreased by HAART.

• Journal of Ginseng Research
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• 제34권2호
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• pp.138-144
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• 2010

Ginseng (Panax ginseng C.A. Meyer) has been shown to have anti-stress effects in animal studies. However, most studies have only managed to detect altered levels of biomarkers or enzymes in blood or tissue, and the actual molecular mechanisms by which ginseng exerts these effects remain unknown. In this study, the anti-oxidative effect of Korean red ginseng (KRG) was examined in human SK-N-SH neuroblastoma cells. Incubation of SK-N-SH cells with the oxidative stressor hydrogen peroxide resulted in significant induction of cell death. In contrast, pre-treatment of cells with KRG decreased cell death significantly. To elucidate underlying mechanisms by which KRG inhibited cell death, the expression of apoptosis-related proteins was examined by Western blot analysis. KRG pre-treatment decreased the expression of the pro-apoptotic gene caspase-3, whereas it increased expression of the anti-apoptotic gene Bcl-2. Consistent with this, immunoblot analysis showed that pre-treatment of the SK-N-SH cells with KRG inhibited expression of the pro-inflammatory gene cyclooxygenase 2 (COX-2). RT-PCR analysis revealed that the repression of COX-2 expression by KRG pre-treatment occurred at the mRNA level. Taken together, our data indicate that KRG can protect against oxidative stress-induced neuronal cell death by repressing genes that mediate apoptosis and inflammation.

• Journal of Ginseng Research
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• 제44권4호
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• pp.644-654
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• 2020

Background: Posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD), a mental disorder induced by traumatic stress and often accompanied by depression and/or anxiety, may involve an imbalance in the neurotransmitters associated with the fear response. Korean Red Ginseng (KRG) has long been used as a traditional medicine and is known to be involved in a variety of pharmacological activities. We used the open field test and forced swimming test to examine the effects of KRG on the depression-like response of rats after exposure to single prolonged stress (SPS), leading to activation of the serotonergic system. Methods: Male rats received KRG (30, 50, and 100 mg/kg, intraperitoneal injection) once daily for 14 days after exposure to SPS. Results: Daily KRG administration significantly improved depression-like behaviors in the forced swimming test, increased the number of lines crossed and time spent in the central zone in the open field test, and decreased freezing behavior in contextual and cued fear conditioning. KRG treatment attenuated SPS-induced decreases in serotonin (5-HT) tissue concentrations in the hippocampus and medial prefrontal cortex. The increased 5-HT concentration during KRG treatment may be partially attributable to the 5-hydroxyindoleacetic acid/5-HT ratio in the hippocampus of rats with PTSD. These effects may be caused by the activation of hippocampal genes encoding tryptophan hydroxylase-1 and 2 mRNA levels. Conclusion: Our findings suggest that KRG has an antidepressant effect in rats subjected to SPS and may represent an effective use of traditional medicine for the treatment of PTSD.

• Journal of Ginseng Research
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• 제36권2호
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• pp.169-175
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• 2012

Ginseng has been used as a traditional medicine for treatment of many diseases and for general health maintenance in people of all ages. Ginseng is also used to ameliorate menopausal systems. We investigated the estrogenic activity of Korean red ginseng (KRG) in a transient transfection system, using estrogen receptor (ER) and estrogen-responsive luciferase plasmids in MCF-7 cells. The extract activated both ER${\alpha}$ and ER${\beta}$. KRG modulated the mRNA levels of estrogen-responsive genes such as pS2 and ESR1 and decreased the protein level of ER${\alpha}$. In order to examine in vivo estrogenic activity of KRG, sixteen female Sprague-Dawley rats separated into four groups were studied for nine weeks: non-ovariectomized (OVX) rats treated with olive oil, OVX rats treated with olive oil, OVX rats treated with 17-${\beta}$-estradiol (E2) in olive oil, and OVX rats treated with KRG extract in olive oil. The experiments were repeated for three times and the data of twelve rats were combined. Body weight of OVX rats was greater than that of sham-operated control rats and was decreased by E2 treatment. Uterine weight increased after E2 treatment compared to OVX rats. However, no difference in body or uterine weight was observed with KRG intake. KRG induced reductions in total cholesterol, low density lipoprotein cholesterol/total cholesterol, high density lipoprotein cholesterol/total cholesterol, and low density lipoprotein cholesterol/high density lipoprotein cholesterol, but not to the same degree as did E2 intake. These results show that KRG does contain estrogenic activity as manifested by in vitro study but the activity is not strong enough to elicit physiological responses.

• Journal of Ginseng Research
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• 제34권3호
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• pp.237-245
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• 2010

The purpose of this study was to evaluate the effect of Korean red ginseng (KRG) on ocular blood flow in patients with glaucoma. In a prospective, randomized, placebo-controlled, double-masked crossover trial, 36 patients with open-angle glaucoma were consecutively recruited. Subjects were randomly assigned into two groups. Group A received 1.5 g KRG, administered orally three times daily for 12 weeks, followed by a wash-out period of 8 weeks and 12 weeks of placebo treatment (identical capsules filled with 1.5 g corn starch). Group B underwent the same regimen, but took the placebo first and then KRG. Blood pressure, heart rate, and intraocular pressure were measured at baseline and at the end of each phase of the study. Visual field examination and ocular blood flow measurements by the Heidelberg Retina Flowmeter were performed at baseline and at the end of each phase of the study. Changes in blood pressure, heart rate, intraocular pressure, visual field indices, and retinal peripapillary blood flow were evaluated. Blood pressure, heart rate, intraocular pressure, and visual field indices did not change after placebo or KRG treatment. After KRG treatment, retinal peripapillary blood flow in the temporal peripapillary region significantly improved (p=0.005). No significant changes were found in retinal peripapillary blood flow in either the rim region or the nasal peripapillary region (p=0.051 and 0.278, respectively). KRG ingestion appears to improve retinal peripapillary blood flow in patients with open-angle glaucoma. These results imply that KRG ingestion might be helpful for glaucoma management.

• Journal of Ginseng Research
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• 제34권3호
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• pp.205-211
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• 2010

Korean red ginseng (KRG) has been used worldwide as a traditional medicine for the treatment of various diseases, including cancer. In this study, we determined the effect of KRG on the responses of HaCaT cells to peroxynitrite ($ONOO^-$). Cells has been used worldwide as a traditional medicine for the treatment of various diseases, including cancer. In this study, we determined the effect of KRG on the responses of HaCaT cells to peroxynitrite ($ONOO^-$). Cells treated with $ONOO^-$ (2 mM) prior to incubation with control medium for 12 hours displayed reduced viability, as determined using the 3-[4,5-dimethylthiazol-2-yl]-2,5-diphenyltetrazolium bromide assay (viability about 48% of that of non-treated control cells). When KRG was added to the post-incubation medium, the negative effects of $ONOO^-$ on cell viability were significantly reduced. Reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction analysis indicated that KRG alone did not significantly alter p53 or "growth arrest and DNA damage" (GADD)45 mRNA levels. However, the addition of KRG to the post-incubation medium significantly and dose-dependently reduced levels of p53 and GADD45 mRNA in $ONOO^-$-treated cells. Western blot analyses revealed that incubation with KRG decreased p53 and GADD45 protein levels in $ONOO^-$-treated cells, relative to those in cells incubated with control medium. Collectively, these results suggest that Korean red ginseng extract protects cells against $ONOO^-$-induced genotoxicity by increasing cell viability through modulating the expression of p53 signaling intermediates.