• KDI Journal of Economic Policy
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• v.12 no.3
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• pp.27-45
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• 1990

Two opposing views prevail regarding the economic impact of rural out-migration on the rural areas of origin. The optimistic neoclassical view argues that rapid rural out-migration is not detrimental to the income and welfare of the rural areas of origin, whereas Lipton (1980) argues the opposite. We developed our own alternative model for rural to urban migration, appropriate for rapidly developing economies such as Korea's. This model, which adopts international trade theories of nontraded goods and Dutch Disease to rural to urban migration issues, argues that rural to urban migration is caused mainly by two factors: first, the unprofitability of farming, and second, the decrease in demand for rural nontraded goods and the increase in demand for urban nontraded goods. The unprofitability of farming is caused by the increase in rural wages, which is induced by increasing urban wages in booming urban manufacturing sectors, and by the fact that the cost increases in farming cannot be shifted to consumers, because farm prices are fixed worldwide and because the income demand elasticity for farm products is very low. The demand for nontraded goods decreases in rural and increases in urban areas because population density and income in urban areas increase sharply, while those in rural areas decrease sharply, due to rapid rural to urban migration. Given that the market structure for nontraded goods-namely, service sectors including educational and health facilities-is mostly in monopolistically competitive, and that the demand for nontraded goods comes only from local sources, the urban service sector enjoys economies of scale, and can thus offer services at cheaper prices and in greater variety, whereas the rural service sector cannot enjoy the advantages offered by scale economies. Our view concerning the economic impact of rural to urban migration on rural areas of origin agrees with Lipton's pessimistic view that rural out-migration is detrimental to the income and welfare of rural areas. However, our reasons for the reduction of rural income are different from those in Lipton's model. Lipton argued that rural income and welfare deteriorate mainly because of a shortage of human capital, younger workers and talent resulting from selective rural out-migration. Instead, we believe that rural income declines, first, because a rapid rural-urban migration creates a further shortage of farm labor supplies and increases rural wages, and thus reduces further the profitability of farming and, second, because a rapid rural-urban migration causes a further decline of the rural service sectors. Empirical tests of our major hypotheses using Korean census data from 1966, 1970, 1975, 1980 and 1985 support our own model much more than the neoclassical or Lipton's models. A kun (county) with a large out-migration had a smaller proportion of younger working aged people in the population, and a smaller proportion of highly educated workers. But the productivity of farm workers, measured in terms of fall crops (rice) purchased by the government per farmer or per hectare of irrigated land, did not decline despite the loss of these youths and of human capital. The kun having had a large out-migration had a larger proportion of the population in the farm sector and a smaller proportion in the service sector. The kun having had a large out-migration also had a lower income measured in terms of the proportion of households receiving welfare payments or the amount of provincial taxes paid per household. The lower incomes of these kuns might explain why the kuns that experienced a large out-migration had difficulty in mechanizing farming. Our policy suggestions based on the tests of the currently prevailing hypotheses are as follows: 1) The main cause of farming difficulties is not a lack of human capital, but the in­crease in production costs due to rural wage increases combined with depressed farm output prices. Therefore, a more effective way of helping farm economies is by increasing farm output prices. However, we are not sure whether an increase in farm output prices is desirable in terms of efficiency. 2) It might be worthwhile to attempt to increase the size of farmland holdings per farm household so that the mechanization of farming can be achieved more easily. 3) A kun with large out-migration suffers a deterioration in income and welfare. Therefore, the government should provide a form of subsidization similar to the adjustment assistance provided for international trade. This assistance should not be related to the level of farm output. Otherwise, there is a possibility that we might encourage farm production which would not be profitable in the absence of subsidies. 4) Government intervention in agricultural research and its dissemination, and large-scale social overhead projects in rural areas, carried out by the Korean government, might be desirable from both efficiency and equity points of view. Government interventions in research are justified because of the problems associated with the appropriation of knowledge, and government actions on large-scale projects are justified because they required collective action.

• The Southeast Asian review
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• v.27 no.1
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• pp.163-191
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• 2017

This article aims to review the recent, especially focusing on the year of 2016, situations and prospects of the Vietnamese politics, economy, and international relations. Politically, Vietnam completed the election of members for the National Assembly and organized new leadership at the 12th National Congress of the Vietnamese Communist Party in 2016. One characteristic of the new leadership is that the politicians, especially the members of politburo, from the North continue to occupy the position of majority. The other one is that the new leadership promised to carry out the restructuring of economy toward industries producing higher value-added commodities even though Vietnam industries admittedly need to accelerate present industrialization and modernization as a developing country under the seemingly contradictory slogan of "the development of market economy for socialism." The declared goals of the new leadership in Vietnam are inevitable in a sense since the development of Vietnamese economy has been heavily dependent upon Foreign Direct Investment(FDI) taking advantage of Vietnamese cheap labor and simultaneously it is evident that its future is unsecure if it maintains status quo. In fact, the Vietnamese economy has impressively showed high growth rate by the help of foreign capitals since 1990s despite the repetitive recessions of global economy but its growth is not likely to be sustainable anymore if it will not reduce foreign dependency and social economic inequality in a long term. In a short run, global economic recession, the financial and monetary policies of global powers, and recent protectionism and uncertainty of trade agreements will be three crucial variables to affect Vietnamese economy. In terms of international relations, Vietnam is continuously expected to practise the policy of checks and balances among the powerful countries. Vietnam has seriously disputed with China on islands sovereignty in the South China Sea and attempted to maintain close relationship with other powerful countries including especially America. However, mainly due to the new protectionism by the regime of American president Donald Trump, the Vietnamese government also need to keep close relationship with China increasingly for both economic and diplomatic security. Under the circumstances, Vietnam is expected to maintain more practical and balanced international relations.

• The Korean Journal of Air & Space Law and Policy
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• v.32 no.1
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• pp.201-224
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• 2017

The main subject of this article focused on the legal status of the military aircraft in the high seas. For this the legal status of the military aircraft, the freedom of overflight, the right of hot pursuit, the right of visit and Air Defense Identification Zone (ADIZ) were dealt. The 1944 Chicago Convention neither explicitly nor implicitly negated the customary norms affecting the legal status of military aircraft as initially codified within the 1919 Paris Convention. So the status of military aircraft was not redefined with the Chicago Convention and remains, as stated in the 1919 Paris Convention, as a norm of customary international law. The analyses on the legal status of the military aircraft in the high seas are found as follows; According to the Article 95 of the 1982 United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS) warships on the high seas have complete immunity from the jurisdiction of any State other than the flag State. We can suppose that the military aircraft in the high seas have also complete immunity from the jurisdiction of any State other than the flag State. According to the Article 111 (5) of the UNCLOS the right of hot pursuit may be exercised only by warships or military aircraft, or other ships or aircraft clearly marked and identifiable as being on government service and authorized to that effect. We can conclude that the right of hot pursuit may be exercised by military aircraft. According to the Article 110 of the UNCLOS a warship which encounters on the high seas a foreign ship, is not justified in boarding it unless there is reasonable ground for suspecting that: (a) the ship is engaged in piracy, (b) the ship is engaged in the slave trade, (c) the ship is engaged in an unauthorized broadcasting and the flag State of the warship has jurisdiction under article 109, (d) the ship is without nationality, or (e) though flying a foreign flag or refusing to show its flag, the ship is, in reality, of the same nationality as the warship. These provisions apply mutatis mutandis to military aircraft. As for Air Defence Identification Zone (ADIZ) it is established and declared unilaterally by the air force of a state for the national security. However, there are no articles dealing with it in the 1944 Chicago Convention and there are no international standards to recognize or prohibit the establishment of ADIZs. ADIZ is not interpreted as the expansion of territorial airspace.

• The Korean Journal of Air & Space Law and Policy
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• v.4
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• pp.65-85
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• 1992

The air waybill is supposed to be made out by the consignor. If the carrier makes it out, he is deemed, subject to proof to the contrary, to have done so on behalf of the consignor. The air waybill shall be made out in three original parts. The first part shall be marked "for the carrier", and shall be signed by the consignor. The second part shall be marked "for the consignee", it shall be signed by the consignor and by the carrier and shall accompany the goods. The third part shall be signed by the carrier and handed by him to the consignor, after the goods have been accepted. According to the original Warsow Convention article 8, the air waybill must contain 17 particulars or items. However, the Hague Protocol reduced to three the number of particulars required to appear on the air waybill. Only one item is obligatory, namely, the notice that the carriage is subject to the rules of the Warsaw Convention. The absence of the air waybill entails unlimited liability of the carrier because it deprives him of the right to avail himself of the provisions of the Warsaw Convention which exclude or limit his liability. The consignor shall be liable for all damages suffered by the carrier or any other person by reason of the irregularity, incorrectness or incompleteness of the particulars and statements in the air waybill. Although the contract of the carriage of goods by air is not a formal contract, the document of carriage is issued. The issue of air wayhill is not essential for the existence or validity of the contract, but serves merely as a means of proof. The Hague Protocol has lessened the consequences of the carrier's neglect to faithfully accomplish the required formalities. Henceforth, these formalities no longer constitute legal obligations. The air waybill is the consignment note used for the carriage of goods by air. It is often called an air consignment note and is not a document of title or transferable/negotiable instrument. It is basically a receipt for the goods for despatch and is prima facie evidence of the conditions of carriage. Each of the original parts of the air waybill has evidential value and possession of his part is a condition for the exercise by the consignor or cosignee of his rights under the contract of carriage. Oveall, it is an usage that under a documentary letter of credit, the consignee on the air waybill is the opening bank of the letter of credit, and the notify party is the importer who applied for the letter of credit. In Korea there is an usage as to process of cargo delivery in air transportation as follows: The carrier carries the cargo into the bonded area of the airport and gives both the notice of arrival of the cargo and the consignee's air waybill to the notify party who is the importer. Then the notify party obtains the Letter of Guarantee from the opening bank in exchange for reimbursing the amount of the letter of credit or tendering the security therefor to the opening bank. The notify party then presents this document to the customs authorities for the process of customs clearance. The opening bank becomes a consignee only to ensure repayment of the funds it has expended, and the only interest of the opening bank as consignee is the reimbursement of the money paid to the exporter under the documentary letter of credit. Just as the bill of lading in maritime law, the air waybill has always been considered negotiable although the Warsaw Convention does not emphasize this aspect of negotiability. However, the Hague Protocol article 4 corrected the situation by stating that "nothing in this Convention prevents the issue of a negotiable air waybill." This provision officially recognizes that the air waybill must meet the needs of the present day business circles by being a negotiable instrument. Meanwhile, Montreal Additional Protocol no. 4 has brought important changes. Registration by computer is acceptable and the parties to the contract of carriage are allowed to replace the air waybill with a receipt for the goods. In conclusion, as the Warsaw Convention has not details of provisions relating to the issuing of the negotiable air waybill, it is hoped that there should be supplement to the Warsaw Convention and establishment of international commercial usage with regard to the negotiable air waybill.

• The Korean Journal of Air & Space Law and Policy
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• v.30 no.2
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• pp.177-199
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• 2015

Commerce enriches human life enriched and within commerce, transportation of cargo is arguably the most important in business transactions. Traditionally, marine transport has been major commercial transaction, but carriage cargo by air is on the increase. While the fare for freight in comparison with that of ocean is higher, air freight has many benefits that justify the higher shipping fee; lower insurance premium, packing charges, inventory control, cost management and especially speed. Therefore, air freight transport is accumulating gradually. An air waybill(AWB) is needed in the air transport flow. It is a nonnegotiable security, so the holder cannot transfer of a right to a third party. Some scholars suggest that a negotiable AWB is needed. However, it seems nearly impossible to do so; an e-AWB use shows a gain in numbers, even if it has not met expectations. Going forward, it would appear reasonable to conduct a follow-up study on the utility and legal problem for e-AWB. After sending goods, the consignor has the right of disposition of cargo in some cases, and more research is necessary, because it is related to change of ownership and a trade settlement. According to WATS (World Airlines Transport Statistics), the Korean Air took third place in international freight in 2014, and fifth in total, domestic and international to great acclaim. However, there is a lack of research supporting the business showing. It is hope that more studies on e-AWB, stoppage in transit, and a risk of outstanding amount, etc. connect to develop Korean air freight industry.

• Journal of Digital Convergence
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• v.13 no.8
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• pp.169-176
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• 2015

This study try to analyze the relationship between the corporate culture type and performance about convergence corporate. In addition, we developed a model that fix this research to analyze the business culture and firms type in order to perform this study overall. In the daily operations of an organization's culture can be a source of corporate competitiveness, it may be classified as an important factor in the performance of the organization to promote. In other words, the organizational culture as well as be able to describe an individual's attitudes and behavior, microscopic, macroscopic analysis of organizational behavior can serve to connect conceptually each others and through this process can be seen as contributing to the achievement creation. Therefore, analyzed the influence of the relationship between corporate culture and performance form the basis of this study and research model was validated. Corporate culture in the form of the convergency enterprise found out the strong relationship with job satisfaction and organizational commitment in the research result. Finally, this research results are expected to be a useful guide as a basis for the creation and management of companies with a corporate culture in the near future convergence corporation.

• Journal of Digital Convergence
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• v.16 no.9
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• pp.107-114
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• 2018

Since China's economic reform in 1978, international trade has enormously flourished and the port industry is reckoned as a key factor contributing to this growth. This study examines the Bohai Rim port group in the scope of top three largest ports Qingdao, Dalian and Tianjin. By utilizing indicators including concentration ratio (CR), Herfindahl-Hirschman index (HHI), the Gini coefficient and the Lorenz curve as well as shift-share analysis (SSA), the concentration level of this port group in the period 2004-2016 is discussed. As a results, CR demonstrates a decrease during the studied period with a minor fluctuation, and HHI index shows a trend of deconcentration with Bohai Rim port group. In addition, SSA indicates that during the period 2004-2016, the overall shift index of Qingdao port was -1.371 meanwhile with Tianjin and Dalian port were 0.118 and 1.252 in turn. These results suggest that the growth in regional influence of Tianjin and Dalian ports would motivate to the deconcentration pattern in Bohai Rim region. The findings assist decision makers and scholars to obtain knowledge about the port development this region. Considering the geographic position of these three ports as the gate of northeast China, it is suggested that these three ports could explore their advantages and cooperate with the small ports in the surrounding area to enhance their influences in the future study.

• Journal of Digital Convergence
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• v.13 no.10
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• pp.99-106
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• 2015

The biggest change in modern society because we will transition to a ubiquitous environment. Changes in the environment has become a crucial instrument that finally opens the era of convergence management through integrating the various fields in their own business. The desire of consumers to new innovative products appears to be a constant thing companies are constantly trying to respond to these changes, there may not be a problem for the convergence of sustainability management company in the end. In this study, based on the convergence of corporate management need to be a fusion component of corporate management to examine whether any impact on the quality of innovation. Results showed that the fusion management components that affect both internal factors and external factors, core factors quality improvement. Internal factors detailed in the convergence management leadership, risk management factors showed a positive external factors affecting appeared to affect positively the knowledge-sharing factors, infrastructure factors. Finally, core factor is technology factors, educational learning factors showed a positive impact. This results suggest that be a big impact factors of competitiveness of enterprises through convergence management in the future and will serve as the strategic basis for the convergence of future corporate management.

• The Journal of Fisheries Business Administration
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• v.51 no.3
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• pp.1-15
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• 2020

The Korean government has been carrying out the marine ranch development project since 1998 with the purpose of responding to the decrease in coastal fishery resources and fishery income, preparing a systematic management system for the sustainable use of fishery resources and realizing advanced fisheries power by expanding and upgrading fisheries resource development projects. In addition, the government established the Korea Fisheries Resources Agency and promoted projects for the protection and management of fishery resources by increasing basic productivity by artificially creating marine forests in areas where whitening events occur. Since the project of building marine ranches and marine forests requires immense government financial support, it is important to estimate the economic value and thoroughly evaluate the feasibility of the project. In this paper, the project of non-market economic value of the development of marine ranches and the development of marine forests was estimated. CVM (Contingent Valuation Method) was applied as a methodology for benefits estimation. Prior to the analysis, a one-on-one interview survey was conducted with participation of 512 residents and 514 residents respectively for the project of creating a marine ranch and developing a marine forest. A DBDC (Double-Bounded Dichotumous Choice) model was applied in the WTP (Willingness To Pay) analysis model and the socioeconomic variables of the surveyor, such as sex, age, education and income, were reflected in the model. The economic benefits from the two projects, namely, building of marine ranches and developing marine forests were estimated to be equal to 4,608 won and 7,772 won per household per year, respectively. According to the results of the survey, it seems that respondents think that marine forests are more valuable than marine ranches. This is as a result of ordinary citizens' thought that the marine ranches are more cost-effective than the marine forests. The benefits estimated through this study can be used for analysis of economic feasibility prior to carrying out the project of building marine ranches and developing marine forests, and are considered to be the valuable for policy-making purposes and finding social and economic consensus.

• KDI Journal of Economic Policy
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• v.12 no.4
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• pp.3-20
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• 1990

The multisector model is designed to analyze and forecast structural change in industrial output, employment, capital and relative price as well as macroeconomic change in aggregate income, interest rate, etc. This model has 25 industrial sectors, containing about 1,300 equations. Therefore, this model is characterized by detailed structural disaggregation at the sectoral level. Individual industries are based on many of the economic relationships in the model. This is what distinguishes a multisector model from a macroeconomic model. Each industry is a behavioral agent in the model for industrial investment, employment, prices, wages, and intermediate demand. The strength of the model lies in the simulating the interactions between different industries. The result of its simulation will be introduced in the next paper. In this paper, we only introduce the structure of the multisector model and the coefficients of the equations. The multisector model is a dynamic model-that is, it solves year by year into the future using its own solutions for earlier years. The development of a dynamic, year-by-year solution allows us to combine the change in structure with a consideration of the dynamic adjustment required. These dynamics have obvious advantages in the use of the multisector model for industrial planning. The multisector model is a medium-term and long-term model. Whereas a short-term model can taken the labor supply and capital stock as given, a long-term model must acknowledge that these are determined endogenously. Changes in the medium-term can be analyzed in the context of long-term structural changes. The structure of this model can be summarized as follow. The difference in domestic and world prices affects industrial structure and the pattern of international trade; domestic output and factor price affect factor demand; factor demand and factor price affect industrial income; industrial income and relative price affect industrial consumption. Technical progress, as measured in terms of total factor productivity and relative price affect input-output coefficients; input-output coefficients and relative price determine the industrial input cost; input cost and import price determine domestic price. The differences in productivity and wage growth among different industries affect the relative price.