• Korean Journal of Plant Resources
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• v.23 no.5
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• pp.415-422
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• 2010

Red ginseng(RG, steamed and dried root of Panax ginseng C. A. Meyer, family Araliaceae) and fermented red ginseng(FRG, fermented red ginseng by yeast and lactic acid bacteria) are known to show different pharmacological effects by changed composition of saponins through fermentation. We examined the effects of RG and FRG on $\beta$-hexosaminidase secretion, ICAM-1 expression, the mitogen-induced proliferation of lymphocyte from mice in ex vivo systems and HaCaT cell(keratinocyte) proliferation to compare the anti-allergic and anti-inflammatory effects between both groups. RG groups showed inhibition of $\beta$-hexosaminidase secretion and ICAM-1 expression at $1{\mu}g/ml$, $10{\mu}g/ml$ and the same effects were observed at all concentrations in FRG groups. In our study, RG increased LPS-induced B cell proliferation at $1{\mu}g/ml$ and ConA-induced B cell proliferation at $100\;{\mu}g/ml$ but FRG decreased LPS- and ConA-induced lymphocytes at $100\;{\mu}g/ml$. We showed that FRG increased the proliferation of HaCaT at 1, $10{\mu}g/ml$ but not by RG. These findings suggest that RG and FRG might have anti-inflammatory and anti-allergic effects, which can be needed to proper clinical concentration to applied to various allergic diseases and inflammation.

• Journal of Microbiology and Biotechnology
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• v.17 no.7
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• pp.1127-1133
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• 2007

Antihyperlipidemic and antihyperglycemic effects of Red Ginseng (RG, steamed and dried root of Panax ginseng C.A.Meyer, family Araliaceae), major component of which is ginsenoside Rg3, and Bifidodoterium-fermented RG (FRG), major component of which is ginsenoside Rh2, were investigated. Orally administered RG and FRG potently reduced the serum triglyceride levels in com-oil-induced hypertriglycemidemic mice as well as total cholesterol and triglyceride levels in Triton WR-1339-induced hyperlipidemic mice. Of the saponin and polysaccharide fractions of RG and FRG, the polysaccharide fraction inhibited postprandial blood glucose elevation of maltose- or starch-loaded mice and reduced the blood triglyceride levels in com-oil-induced hypertriglycemidemic mice. The saponin fraction and its ginsenosides Rg3 and Rh2 reduced blood triglyceride and total cholesterol levels in Triton WR1339-induced hyperlipidemic mice. The inhibitory effect of FRG and its main constituents against hyperlipidemia and hyperglycemia in mice were more potent than those of RG. These findings suggest that hypolipidemic and hypoglycemic effects of RG can be enforced by Bifidus fermentation and FRG may improve hyperlipidemia and hyperglycemia.

• Journal of Ginseng Research
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• v.44 no.4
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• pp.611-618
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• 2020

Background: It is well recognized that gut microbiota is involved in the biotransformation of ginsenosides by converting the polar ginsenosides to nonpolar bioactive ginsenosides. However, the roles of the gut microbiota on the pharmacokinetics of ginsenosides in humans have not yet been fully elucidated. Methods: Red ginseng (RG) or fermented red ginseng was orally administered to 34 healthy Korean volunteers, and the serum concentrations of the ginsenosides were determined using liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry. In addition, the fecal ginsenoside Rd- and compound K (CK)eforming activities were measured. Then, the correlations between the pharmacokinetic profiles of the ginsenosides and the fecal ginsenoside-metabolizing activities were investigated. Results: For the RG group, the area under the serum concentratione-time curve values of ginsenosides Rd, F2, Rg3, and CK were 8.20 ± 11.95 ng·h/mL, 4.54 ± 3.70 ng·h/mL, 36.40 ± 19.68 ng·h/mL, and 40.30 ± 29.83 ng·h/mL, respectively. For the fermented red ginseng group, the the area under curve from zero to infinity (AUC_∞) values of ginsenosides Rd, F2, Rg3, and CK were 187.90 ± 95.87 ng·h/mL, 30.24 ± 41.87 ng·h/mL, 28.68 ± 14.27 ng·h/mL, and 137.01 ± 96.16 ng·h/mL, respectively. The fecal CK-forming activities of the healthy volunteers were generally proportional to their ginsenoside Rd-eforming activities. The area under the serum concentration-time curve value of CK exhibited an obvious positive correlation (r = 0.566, p < 0.01) with the fecal CK-forming activity. Conclusion: The gut microbiota may play an important role in the bioavailability of the nonpolar RG ginsenosides by affecting the biotransformation of the ginsenosides.

• Korean Journal of Organic Agriculture
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• v.22 no.4
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• pp.705-718
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• 2014

This study was performed to evaluate the suppressive effects of organic fungicides made using environment-friendly materials on leaf spot disease and anthracnose that infect ginseng. Anthracnose (Colletotrichum gloeosporioides) and leaf spot disease (Alternaria panax) are principal diseases that decrease the yield of ginseng by defoliation before root enlargement. Fermented eggs and oyster shells, water extract of green tea and ethanol extract of red ginseng dregs were significantly effective in suppressing leaf spot disease. Fermented crab and shrimp shells and fermented motherwort were also effective in suppressing the recurrence of ginseng anthracnose. The preventive effects of these environment-friendly materials were definitely superior to the therapeutic effects. Therefore, these materials could be used as alternatives to chemical pesticides, which can not be applied in organic ginseng cultivation field. These organic fungicides need to be applied before the incidence of ginseng anthracnose in order to maximize their suppressive effects.

• The Korean Journal of Food And Nutrition
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• v.14 no.1
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• pp.52-58
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• 2001

The 7.5% wax gourd-added mash composed of 7.5% brown rice. 1.5% malt. 3% red ginseng and 6% ethanol solution, and mash which 7.5% wax gourd was not added were fermented as vinegar and produced acetic acid, with the use of Acetobacter aceti 3281, at 25$\^{C}$ for 150 days. As the result, vinegar of no added-wax gourd was shown containing 3.3 % total sugar, 1.5% reducing sugar, 11.5 absorbance at 280nm, 2.7$\mu$M/ml amino acid, and 0.5 % ethanol, 3.0 pH, 4.59% acidity, 5.2% organic acid. The 7.5% wax gourd-added vinegar showed 2.3% of total sugar, 1.1% reducing sugar, 10.8 absorbance at 280nm, 2.1 $\mu$ M/ml amino acid, 1.2% ethanol, 3.1 pH, 4.61% acidity, 4.9% organic acid. In preference test of 5-points in full, red ginseng vinegar showed 3.86, and wax gourd-red ginseng vinegar 3.66.

• Journal of Ginseng Research
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• v.44 no.6
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• pp.770-774
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• 2020

Background: Fermentation has been shown to improve the biological properties of plants and herbs. Specifically, fermentation causes decomposition and/or biotransformation of active metabolites into high-value products. Polyacetylenes are a class of polyketides with a pleiotropic profile of bioactivity. Methods: Column chromatography was used to isolate compounds, and extensive NMR experiments were used to determine their structures. The transformation of polyacetylene in red ginseng (RG) and the production of cazaldehyde B induced by the extract of RG were identified by TLC and HPLC analyses. Results: A new metabolite was isolated from RG fermented by Chaetomium globosum, and this new metabolite can be obtained by the biotransformation of polyacetylene in RG. Panaxytriol was found to exhibit the highest antifungal activity against C. globosum compared with other major ingredients in RG. The fungus C. globosum cultured in RG extract can metabolize panaxytriol to Metabolite A to survive, with no antifungal activity against itself. Metabolites A and B showed obvious inhibition against NO production, with ratios of 42.75 ± 1.60 and 63.95 ± 1.45% at 50 µM, respectively. A higher inhibitory rate on NO production was observed for Metabolite B than for a positive drug. Conclusion: Metabolite A is a rare example of natural polyacetylene biotransformation by microbial fermentation. This biotransformation only occurred in fermented RG. The extract of RG also stimulated the production of a new natural product, cazaldehyde B, from C. globosum. The lactone in Metabolite A can decrease the cytotoxicity, which was deemed to be the intrinsic activity of polyacetylene in ginseng.

• Korean Journal of Food Science and Technology
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• v.13 no.4
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• pp.267-272
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• 1981

The qualities of ginseng leaf teas prepared by six different processing methods were evaluated to develop the leaf tea. The leaf tea prepared by fermentation at $30^{\circ}C$ showed the highest in the ratio of 30 min water extracts to the total extractable matters. This ratio was followed in decreasing order by the heat dried tea and the one fermented at $25^{\circ}C$. The yellow, orange and red color intensities of water extracts were the highest in the tea prepared by toasting method followed by teas fermented at $30^{\circ}C\:and\:25^{\circ}C$. The amount of saponins extracted with boiling water was the highest in the tea fermented at $30^{\circ}C$ among teas investigated. This tea was also most acceptable in sensory evaluation by the flavour profile method.

• The Korean Journal of Food And Nutrition
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• v.26 no.3
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• pp.485-491
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• 2013

Rhodiola spp. and red ginseng have been used for food and medicinal applications in disease chemoprevention in many Asian countries. Increased oxidative stress by reactive oxygen species (ROS) has been proposed to be a major cause of muscle fatigue. The present study was designed to investigate the protective effects of a fermented hot-water extract mixture from Rhodiola sachalinensis and red ginseng (MFR) on cell damage and the antioxidant enzyme system in $H_2O_2$-induced oxidative stress in skeletal muscle cells. C2C12 myoblasts were treated with various concentrations of NFR (non-fermented Rhodiola sachalinensis extract), FR (fermented hot-water extract from Rhodiola sachalinensis) and MFR for up to 5 days after the standard induction of differentiation, followed by semi-quantitative RT-PCR. MFR treatment dose-dependently protected oxidative damage of C2C12 cells. The treatment with MFR also enhanced mRNA expressions of MyoD, Cu/Zn SOD, Mn-SOD and GPX up to 16%. These results indicate that MFR exerts an anti-oxidative effect through a mechanism (s) that may involve the up-regulation of antioxidant enzymes, which may be important for the cellular redox environment in muscle cells.

• Food Engineering Progress
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• v.13 no.1
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• pp.16-23
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• 2009

Onion juices supplemented with different concentrations of puffed red ginseng extract were fermented using Pediococcus pentosaceus KC-007 and their biologically functional properties were investigated. When onion juices were supplemented with puffed red ginseng extract at the concentration of 0.5, 1, 2, and 4% (v/v) each, viable cell number of lactic acid bacteria was the highest at 24 hr of fermentation in all samples. The titratable acidity increased as the fermentation proceeds irrespective of the added amount of red ginseng extract, and the pH of fermentation broth decreased until 36 hr of fermentation. The reducing sugar of fermentation broth decreased until 24 hr of fermentation and did not change thereafter. The electron donating ability and nitrite scavenging ability were highest when red ginseng extract was added at the concentration of more than 1% (w/v). The overall acceptance in sensory evaluation was the best when red ginseng extract was added at the concentration of 1% (w/v). From these results, it is confirmed that the optimum concentration of puffed red ginseng extract for the lactic acid fermentation of onion juice was 1% (w/v).

• The Korea Journal of Herbology
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• v.38 no.1
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• pp.11-19
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• 2023

Objectives : Neuroinflammation is a common pathological mechanism of neurodegenerative diseases, and the development of therapeutic agents is urgently needed. Red ginseng has been known to be good for the immune stimulation in Eastern Asia. Although the immuno-stimulatory activity of red ginseng are already known, the neuro-protective effects of cultivated red ginseng with fermented complex mushroom-cereal mycelium (RGFM) have not been conducted. Thus, in this study, we tried to investigate the anti-neuroinflammatory effect of RGFM water extract on lipopolysaccharide (LPS) stimulated BV2 cells. Methods : BV2 cells were pretreated with RGFM 1 h prior to LPS exposure. To determine the neuro-protective effects of RGFM water extract, we measured the expression of inflammatory mediators including inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS), cyclooxygenase (COX)-2 and nitric oxide (NO) and pro-inflammatory cytokines such as interleukin (IL)-1𝛽, IL-6 and tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-𝛼 in LPS-stimulated BV2 cells. In addition, to find out the regulatory mechanism of RGFM water extract, we assessed the protein levels of mitogen-activated protein kinases (MAPKs) and inhibitory 𝜅B𝛼 (I𝜅B𝛼) by western blotting. Results : In our study, treatment of RGFM reduced the mRNA expression of iNOS and COX-2 and suppressed NO production in LPS-stimulated BV2 cells. Additionally, the secretion of IL-1𝛽 and TNF-𝛼 but not IL-6 was significantly inhibited by RGFM. Furthermore, RGFM water extract inhibited the phosphorylation of c-Jun N-terminal kinase (JNK). Conclusions : Taken together, these findings suggest that RGFM water extract has a protective effect on neuroinflammation through inhibition of JNK.