• Korean Journal of Heritage: History & Science
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• v.54 no.3
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• pp.168-191
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• 2021

This article examines the shape, iconography, and creation date of the Four Buddhist Heavenly Kings (Sacheonwang 四天王) enshrined in the Heavenly Kings' Gate (Cheonwangmun 天王門) of Hoeamsa in Yangju, Gyeonggi Province during the early Joseon Dynasty. First, small fragments of clay decoration excavated from a fourth-platform gate site of the Hoeamsa Temple Site in Yangju Gyeonggi Province were analyzed and compared to other Four Heavenly Kings enshrined in the (Cheonwangmun gates) during the Joseon Dynasty. In addition, the size and shape of the gate were compared to other Cheonwangmun gates constructed during the Joseon Dynasty. Results revealed that the excavated fragments were part of the armor of Sacheonwang, and the clay-standing statues enshrined in the fourth-platform gate of Hoeamsa Temple would be proportional in size to those of Beopjusa Temple in Boeum, South Chungcheong Province. The flame-type pieces, which decorated the Heavenly King's crown in the Joseon Dynasty, and the rectangular-type pieces were not found in artifacts from the Goryeo Dynasty. Therefore, the Sacheonwang sculptures of the Hoeamsa Temple were likely made in the late 15th century in the early Joseon Dynasty. A detailed iconography of the Sacheonwang of Hoeamsa is presumedly based on the Buddhist paintings and illustrations of Buddhist scriptures (Gyeongbyeonsangdo 經變相圖)from the late Goryeo and early Joseon. During the late Goryeo Dynasty and early Joseon Dynasty, Traditional iconography from Goryeo and new iconography from Ming coexisted. However, in the late 15th century, the Sacheonwang statues of the early Joseon Dynasty had many different elements from those of the Goryeo Dynasty and were similar to those enshrined in Cheonwangmun Gate during the Joseon Dynasty. The Four Heavenly Kings of Hoeamsa Temple, believed to have been produced in the late 15th century, has historical significance in the following points. They were the first Joseon Sacheonwang statues example enshrined in the Cheonwangmun gate. In addition, they were established as a new tradition that influenced the iconography of the Four Heavenly Kings during the Joseon Dynasty.

• Korean Journal of Heritage: History & Science
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• v.54 no.1
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• pp.52-69
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• 2021

The transcriptions of Buddhist sutra in the Goryeo Dynasty are more elaborate and splendid than those of any other period and occupy a very important position in Korean bibliography. Among them, the transcriptions made on indigo paper show decorative features that represent the dignity and quality that nobles would have preferred. Particularly, during the Goryeo Dynasty, a large number of transcriptions were made on indigo paper, often in hand-scrolled and folded forms. If flexibility was not guaranteed, the hand-scrolled form caused inconvenience and damage when handling the transcription because of the structural limitations of the material that is rolled up and opened. It was possible to overcome these shortcomings by changing from the hand-scrolled to the folded form to obtain convenience and structural stability. The folded form of the transcription utilizes the same principle as the folding screen, so it is a structure that can be folded and unfolded, and it is made by connecting parts at regularly spaced intervals. No matter how small the transcription is, if it is made of thin paper, it is difficult to handle it and to maintain its shape and structure. For this reason, the folded transcription was usually made of thick paper to support the structure, and the cover was made thicker than the inner part to protect the contents. In other words, the forded form was generally manufactured to suit the characteristics of maintaining strength by making the paper thick. Because a large amount of indigo paper was needed to make this type of transcription, it is assumed that there were craftsmen who were in charge only of dark dyeing the papers. Usually, paper dyeing requires much more dye than silk dyeing, and dyeing dozens of times would be required to obtain the deep indigo color of the base of the transcription of Buddhist sutra in the Goryeo Dynasty. Unfortunately, there is no record of the Goryeo Dynasty's indigo blue paper manufacturing technique, and the craftsmen who made indigo paper no longer remain, so no one knows the exact method of making indigo paper. Recently, Hanji artisans, natural dyers, and conservators attempted to restore the Goryeo Dynasty's indigo paper, but the texture and deep colors found in the relics could not be reproduced. This study introduces the process of restoring indigo paper in the Goryeo Dynasty through collaboration between dyeing artisans, Hanji artisans, and conservators for conservation of the transcription of Buddhist sutra in the late Goryeo dynasty, yielding a suggested method of making indigo paper.

• Journal of the Daesoon Academy of Sciences
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• v.47
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• pp.241-279
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• 2023

The Scripture of Myriad Laws was first published in 1986 and then reprinted in 1994 and 1995. It gained widespread recognition as a mysterious text or a Buddhist document containing enigmatic content that deemed difficult to comprehend. Through the analysis of the content of The Scripture of Myriad Laws, it was revealed that the book was published by the Dragon Flower Order, a Jeungsanist religion founded by Seo Baek-Il (徐白一). Therefore, the various texts included in The Scripture of Myriad Laws can be classified as 'Songs of Jeungsanism' (Jeungsan-gyo Gasa 甑山敎歌辭). The contents included in The Scripture of Myriad Laws often mention terms unique to the Jeungsanist orders, such as 'the Reordering Works of Heaven and Earth' (天地公事), 'presiding over cures' (醫統), 'Degree Number' (度數), 'the West God' (西神), 'the nobility of heaven' (天尊), 'the nobility of earth' (地尊), 'the nobility of humanity' (人尊), 'ruling the world for 50 years' (治天下五十年), and 'the era of Resolving Grievances (解冤時代).' It also discusses the birthplace and birth date of Kang Jeungsan, his family name, and the duration of his existence. The contents directly quote the words spoken by Jeungsan and incorporate them into songs. They also mention unique Jeungsan terms such as 'Five Immortals Playing Baduk' (五仙圍碁), 'open-weight wresting match,' 'birth, growth, harvest, and storage' (生長斂藏), 'the god who listens to words' (言聽神), 'pillar of foundation' (基礎棟樑),' 'Ocean Seal' (海印), and 'the higher gods' (上計神). It is also notable that some verses of Chinese poetry that Jeungsan taught his disciples are directly quoted in this scripture. Furthermore, the scripture shows traces of Buddhist salvational beliefs; particularly those that emphasize faith in Maitreya Bodhisattva (彌勒信仰). However, The Scripture of Myriad Laws differs from traditional Buddhist beliefs in that it anticipates and emphasizes the birth of a specific individual endowed with the power and abilities of Maitreya Buddha. While emphasizing Maitreya Buddha (彌勒世尊) and the Dragon Flower Gathering (龍華會上), the scripture also specifically mentions Geumsan-sa Temple (金山寺) located on Mount Moak (母岳山) in North Jeolla Province, and these details are sung about in a special manner. This positive portrayal serves to affirm the belief of followers that Jeungsan, centered around Geumsan-sa Temple, was an incarnation of Maitreya Buddha. Moreover, The Scripture of Myriad Laws subtly asserts that Seo Baek-il, the leader of the Dragon Flower Order, who is mentioned in the scripture, is the absolute savior who has come to this world in place of Jeungsan. In support of this teaching, his birth date, birthplace, years of imprisonment, release date, and honorific name (號) are all recorded in precise detail.

• Journal of architectural history
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• v.22 no.4
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• pp.7-18
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• 2013

Integrated-Salmi can be suggested as a character of Da-po type Kong-po in Korea's traditional architecture. However, only few studies are made on this subject yet. This study is to investigate the integration process of Salmi through cases of certain Kong-po which have the same number of inner and outer Chul-mok and are also known to precede in time. The results of the study are like below. First, Integrated-Salmi is more dominant in inner and outer 3 Chul-mok Kong-po than in inner and outer 2 Chul-mok Kong-po. Second, While inner and outer 2 Chul-mok prevail in Yeong-nam region, inner and outer 3 Chul-mok prevail in Ho-nam region. Third, integrated Salmi of Inner and outer 3 Chul-mok, first appeared in internal Jusangpo to be carried over to internal Juganpo then eventually to outer Salmi. Fourth, the reason why integrated form precede in internal salmi of inner and outer 3 Chul-mok Kong-po is due to 2 main factors. First of which is the impact of integrated Boaji that developed in Da-po type since the early 16th century. The second factor is downward expansion of Cho-gak's Boaji which was adopted to cope with disorders made in structure of Chum-Cha, due to inner and outer 3 Chul-mok type buddhist temples' wide reconstruction throughout Jeolla region following the Japanese invasion of Korea in 1592. This study is to disclose the regularity of development process of Salmi's Cho-gak(草刻) which is a characteristic of Korea's Da-po type Kong-po.

• Korean Journal of Oriental Medicine
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• v.14 no.1
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• pp.1-8
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• 2008

This article highlights the part of Chijongjinam that was not examined by previous relevant studies. Findings are summarized as follows. First, king was the main reader of the Yubang that was the raw material of Chijongbibang. This means that Yubang was a kind of document that was reported to the central government. It is likely that the Yubang was written when lm-Eonguk was affiliated to Chijongcheong. Second, lm-Eonguk developed a body of innovative medical techniques based on acupunctural skills that had been learnt from an old Buddhist monk. The newly developed techniques was possible because he combined altogether the medical experiences of his own and a band of veterinary knowledge and techniques that was then disregarded. Third, Chijongbibang indicates that the origin of unique features in Korean medicine can be traced up to before the Japanese Invasion of Korea in 1592, though it is generally accepted that Sauigyeongheombang contained on a full scale unique features of the Korean medicine that was initiated by laypersons and later formed the mainstream of Korean medicine. What should be particularly noted here is that the personal medicine of lm-Eonguk being based on laypersons' medical experiences was employed by central government; the government circulated the medical knowledge and skills for the grass-roots; and eventually the medicine influenced Chinese medicine. And last but not least, lm-Eonguk set the historic occasion of using medicinal materials that can be found on the road and used readily, which is virtually a distinctive case that is unlikely to be found anywhere except Korean medical books.

• Fashion & Textile Research Journal
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• v.5 no.5
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• pp.481-494
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• 2003

The Gamrotenghwa of the Choson Dynasty is a unique genre of buddhist painting in that the destiny of the dead souls and the guidance to nirvana are expressed in reality. More than 50 of the Gamrotenghwa are known to be present, and the lower part of the paintings includes a wide assortment of folk customary scenes reflecting the social life style of the time when the painting was drawn, such as difficulties in life. public life, punishment and war. Changes in the costume of the people shown on the customary scenes of the Gamrotenghwa according to the time based changes in painting style were investigated in this study. The results are summarized in three points. First, the costumes of bureaucrats showed a tendency of preservation without any major changes in the painting. On the other hand, costumes of public and entertainer in the scenes were very close to those worn by the people at that time. The realistic description of public life in the painting may establish the value of the Gamrotenghwa as the historical documents. Second, the costume of the people in the painting showed a dual structure as the social positions; bureaucrats wore various official hats, large coats and belts to expose their social prestige. while the general public wore simple and convenient clothing which is divided into shirt and pants. The dual structure of the costume in the painting is in well accordance with that of the later period of Choson dynasty, suggesting that the customary scenes in the painting represent the social life style of the period. Finally, the customary scenes in the Gamrotenghwa are very variegated. which shows a variety of beauty of wearing even though they look coarse in a sense. The diversity of wearing beauty in the picture may contribute to the recreation of the beauty of shape in the new design of Hanbok.

• Archives of design research
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• v.15 no.2
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• pp.147-156
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• 2002

As our country holds 2002 Korea-Japan FIFA World Cup, more foreigners are visiting Korea, making the tourist industry more profitable. Under these circumstances, we should pay attention to the restroom as a public facility, and inspire the awareness in the Korean people to improve the public restrooms. However, according to KNTO(Korea National Tourist Organization), it has turned out that foreign tourists are still dissatisfied with dirty restrooms and poor signposting when they visit Korea, Though the number of restrooms has been increased, they are not properly managed being a public nuisance due to negligence of administration and straggling facilities. To make it worse, poor design of restrooms and insufficient consideration of handicapped person bring disgrace on Koreas tourist administration. While studies on restrooms began from the 1980s, it has placed too much emphasis on the space arrangement and facility plan, so we need to pay attention to the traditional design and environment aspect of restrooms. This study is 1 haute looked into the problems and actual conditions of restrooms, and based on these data, applied Korean Buddhist architecture style to restrooms to create a comfortable circumstance in restrooms.

• Journal of architectural history
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• v.23 no.6
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• pp.47-54
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• 2014

Hwangrong Temple was the center of the Buddhist culture of Silla dynasty. It was built in the 14th year of King Jinheung in Silla dynasty, and completely burnt out when the Mongol Army invaded the Korean peninsula during the reign of King Gojong of Koryeo dynasty. 8-year excavation of the site from 1976 as part of the Gyeongju Tourism Comprehensive Plan revealed many things about the Hwangrongsaji. Recently, a book introduced 'Geumdongnanganpyeon' among relics found in the site, but omitted in the Excavation Report published at that time. Though 'Palgak Geumdongnanganpyeon' has numerical signs 六, 七(six, seven), there was no clear explanation of the signs. Thus, this paper examines it. We can guess, through the remaining iron fragment, that the side of Geumdongnanganpyeon is octagonal, and the width of the side S13 fragment belongs to is about 400mm. The overall form of the face is similar to the Geumdong Palgaktop stored in the Museum of Dongguk University, but, in detail, it is similar to the Zhuanlunzang Pavilion of Longxing Temple and the Sakyamuni Pagoda of Fogong Temple in China. And, numerical signs can be understand to designate the numbers of story and face. The reason why the number might indicate the number of story is that fragments which are presumed to be used for the same purpose contain different measurement values, and the basis of the concept of face can be found in efficiency of manufacturing and manufacturing techniques of artifacts of the time. The two aspects mentioned above cannot be confirmed because of not sufficient relics and related researches. But, the overall form may have been multi-story tower of at least two stories. If more studies in various fields are done in the future, it is expected that the original form will be recovered more accurately.

• Acta Via Serica
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• v.4 no.2
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• pp.119-128
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• 2019

This paper attempts to reveal little-known pages from the history of relations between the peoples of Central Asia and Korea based on materials derived from written sources and modern scientific literature, as well as from medieval wall paintings from the early medieval Afrasiab Palace of Varhuman, the ruler of Samarkand, and from stone sculptures of Sogdian figures contained in Silla royal tombs. Korea's interest in the western lands led to its contact with Buddhism, which spread and later flourished in all three Korean kingdoms (Koguryo, Paekche and Silla). The spread of Buddhism in turn motivated a number of Korean monks to undertake pilgrimages to India via Central Asia. Hyecho, a young Silla pilgrim, left evidence of his journey via the South China Sea to India in 723 AD. Paul Pelliot discovered a report from Hyecho's journey entitled Notes on Pilgrimage to Five Regions in India (Wang Wu Tianzhuguo zhuan) in the Dunhuang caves in 1908. Hyecho's contributions are worthy of attention, substantially complementing knowledge available for this little-studied period in the history of South and Central Asia. The information contained in Hyecho's manuscript is, in fact, considered the most significant work of the first half of the 8th century. Research regarding the relationship between Central Asia and Korea remains underdeveloped. Existing historical evidence, however, including the above mentioned Samarkand wall paintings, depicts the visits of two Korean ambassadors to Samarkand, and evidence from Silla tombs suggests the presence of diplomatic relations in addition to trade between the two regions. Overall, the history of the relationship between Central Asia and Korea yields new insights into how and why these distant countries sustained trade and diplomatic and cultural exchange during this early period. Taking into account Korea's growing interest in Uzbekistan, especially in its history and culture, this article can act as a catalyst for studying the history of the two country's relations.

• Nutrition Research and Practice
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• v.13 no.1
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• pp.23-31
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• 2019

BACKGROUND/OBJECTIVES: A large number of studies on anemia have focused mostly on pregnant women or children. The vegetarian population, which is another potential risk group for anemia, remains largely unexplored. Therefore, this cross-sectional study examined the associations of the sociodemographic, lifestyle, nutritional, and psychological factors with the anemia status among female adult vegetarians. SUBJECTS/METHODS: A total of 177 female vegetarians were recruited from a Buddhist and Hindu organization in Selangor, Malaysia. The participants completed a self-administered questionnaire, which analyzed their sociodemographic characteristics, physical activity level, sleep quality, depression, anxiety, and stress. The body weight, height, waist circumference, and body fat percentage of the participants were also measured. A 3-day dietary recall was conducted to assess their dietary intake. Blood samples (3 ml) were withdrawn by a nurse from each participant to determine the hemoglobin (Hb) level. RESULTS: The findings revealed 28.2% of the participants to be anemic. The age group (AOR = 2.46, 95% CI = 1.19-5.05), marital status (AOR = 2.69, 95% CI = 1.27-5.71), and percentage of energy from protein (AOR = 5.52, 95% CI = 1.41-21.65) were the significant predictors of anemia. CONCLUSIONS: Anemia is a public health problem among female vegetarians in this study. Health promotion programs that target female adult vegetarians should be conducted to manage and prevent anemia, particularly among those who are married, aged 50 and below, and with an inadequate protein intake.