• Korean Journal of Heritage: History & Science
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• v.56 no.3
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• pp.22-44
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• 2023

The subsistence economics of the early Bronze Age has focused on explaining the intensity of agricultural practices without sufficiently taking into account the diversity of production methods that may arise from cultural types or environmental factors. The problem appears to stem from paying insufficient attention to the question whether we should understand the transition from the Neolithic Age to the Bronze Age as continuous or discrete. This has hitherto blocked an avenue to investigate the gradual changes in subsistence resource production methods. Taking as its premise that changes in the production methods of subsistence resources in the Bronze Age have been continuous and gradual, this paper seeks to restore the production patterns of subsistence resources according to the variety of factors that may have influenced the early Bronze Age production method. With diverse cultural patterns and ecological spaces of the early Bronze Age being confirmed, the work of restoring the production methods of subsistence resources in a specific period is difficult to achieve with one or two stand-alone analyses. A more appropriate method would involve separating a number of different aspects related to the production of subsistence resources, analyzing and interpreting each, and in the final stage, synthesizing the analyses. The specific research method employed in this paper checked for compositional differences in stone production tools, functionally categorized according to a variety of factors that have a close relationship with the production of subsistence resources: cultural-environmental factors and cultural patterns, geographical and topographical factors, soil productivity, and size of settlement. The results of the analysis are as follows: for the early Bronze Age production pattern of subsistence resources in the Seoul and Gyeonggi regions, while no substantive differences were observed with respect to cultural type, geographical and topographical location, the results show statistically significant differences in the composition of production tools according to settlement size and soil productivity. Also, with an increasing ratio of settlement size and total production soil, increases in hunting and armoring tools, woodworking tools, and harvesting tools were observed; on the other hand, when it came to the ratio of fishing tools, the opposite relationship was observed. While a correlation between settlement size or crop cultivation productivity and dependence on hunting or farming was expected, the results of the regression analysis show that settlement size and soil productivity ratios do not have mutually significant relationships. The results thus illustrate that patterns of production differ according to a variety of factors, and no single factor is decisive in the adoption of subsistence resource production methods by a specific settlement. Therefore, the paper emphasizes the need to investigate the production patterns of subsistence resources according to the variety of cultural and environmental factors that make up settlements in early Bronze Age society.

• Journal of the Korean Association of Geographic Information Studies
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• v.14 no.3
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• pp.110-125
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• 2011

A number of the Bronze Age dwelling sites have been found and excavated in the Yoodoocheon, Onyangcheon and Baekseokdong basins. Two basins are located near Asan and Onyan in the Chungnam Province of South Korea. Baekseokdong is located in Cheonan, Chungnam. 207 dwelling sites are concentrated around the area of $1.3km^2$ in the Baekseokdong. 177 dwelling sites are sparse and distributed over the area of $1.3km^2$ in the Yongdoocheon and Onyangcheon basins. Most of the Bronze Age dwelling sites in those areas located on the hill. The hills have similar geomorphological environments except for slight differences in geological faces. This study analyzes geomorphological environments of the high-density residential zone of the Bronze Age in the Yoodoocheon and the Onyangcheon basins, and then compares them with the results in Baekseokdong. Study results show that high-density residential zone consists mainly of specific micro-landforms such as the Crest slope, the Crest flat and the Upper side slope, and southeast-facing aspect. A lot of Gentle slope lands were distributed in terms of terrain slope but it is far from specific geomorphological environments. This is not weighted in specific value. Our results show that the geomorphological characteristic derived from this study is major considerations to develop dwelling sites in the Bronze Age. This can be useful to discover the possible dwelling sites over other Chungnam hill regions.

• Korean Journal of Heritage: History & Science
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• v.51 no.4
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• pp.224-233
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• 2018

Thirty-three Early Iron Age bronzes at the sites of Hoam-dong in Chungju and Cheongsong-ri in Buyeo were investigated in order to study the manufacturing technique and the provenance of lead. Chemical analysis using X-ray fluorescence showed that 33 bronzes consist of copper(Cu), tin(Sn) and lead(Pb) served as major elements. Major and minor elemental analyses by EPMA were performed on two mirrors and 2 weapons of the bronzes investigated. The results shows that bronze mirrors from Chungju and Buyeo were high-tin bronzes(> 30 wt%). And 20% of tin and 5% of lead were founded in bronze weapons. Iron, zinc, arsenic, silver, nickel, sulfur and cobalt detected in four bronzes as minor and trace elements. The four bronzes were alloyed considering their function and were not heat treated after casting due to their high tin content. Lead isotope analysis using TIMS indicates that thirty-three bronzes were distributed southern Korea peninsula except Zone 1. As a result, lead raw materials came from various regions in Korean Peninsula not from Gyeongsang-do regions. The manufacturing techniques of bronze ware generalized at this age, and bronze was produced in various sites using raw materials from various sources.

• Journal of Conservation Science
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• v.37 no.5
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• pp.606-616
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• 2021

From the collection of the National Kimhae Museum, qualitative analyses using microscopic observation, SEM-EDS, Raman spectroscopy, FT-IR-ATR spectroscopy, and GC-MS were conducted on three burnished red potteries-Jeoksaekmaoyeonwa burnished red pottery (Neolithic age red pottery), Dandomaoyeonwan burnished red pottery(Bronze age red pottery) and Jeoksaekmaoyeongajimun burnished red pottery(Bronze age red pottery)-to investigate the components of the red pigments and the binder. After the layers of the primer were separated from the red surface, crystals of red pigment particles and minerals were found on the red surface. Through SEM-EDS, Raman estimates that the red pigment is Among soil pigments with iron oxide(Fe₂O₃) as the main color development source, Red Ocher(Fe₂O₃). A band characteristic of the Urushiol polymer was detected in the FTIR-ATRspectra(4000~600cm^-1), GC-MS analysis confirmed the presence of the benzenemethanol-2-prophenyl, 4-heptylphenol, 1-tetracecanol, heptafluorobutyric texidecane, all of which are the ingredients of the directional structure of the lacquer present in the red layer. Therefore, it seemed that the three burnished red pottery: Jeoksaekmaoyeonwan pottery(Neolithic age burnished red pottery), Dandomaoyeonwan pottery(bronze age burnished red pottery) and the Jeoksaekmaoyeongajimun pottery(bronze age burnished red pottery) made by mixing minerals and Red Ocher(Fe₂O₃), with lacquer.

• 보존과학연구
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• s.27
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• pp.5-22
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• 2006

Mireuksa is a temple that was established in the Baekjea Period and continued around to the 16thcentury. The sites of the temple throughout diverse periods such as the United Shilla Period, KoryuPeriod, and Chosun Period including the one of the early temple in the late Baekjea Period were discovered. In those temple sites, there were lots of diverse artifacts discovered including artifacts in the Bronze Age. In this study, the compositions of four bronze bells excavated from Mireuksa site in Iksan were analyzed and the manufacturing technique of bronze bells was studied through the observation of microstructure. Also, the analytical cases of ancient bronze bells were collected and compared. Furthermore, the provenance study of the bronze bells site was attempted with the Pbisotope ratio. The results aim to offer crucial keys for discovering the aspect of society as well as information about the origin, development, and the route of propagation of ancient technologies. Bronze bell No. 1 showed an unexpected composition as Cu was found 98.5% in it. There were shown twins which were created by annealing and an even phase in the fine grains. It was also shown that bronze bell No. 2 and 4 had a high content of Pb although they showed a similar composition with general bronze bells in terms of Sn content. As shown in the analysis characteristics table of Korean bronze bell of this study, the ancient bronze bell used Pb of which content was limited to 2.12% in general, however, the results showed 15.5% and 13.2% respectively, which is an excessive amount. Asa result of analyzing inclusion in the microstructure of bronze bell No. 2, it was found that sulfide group mineral was used since there appeared S(14.55%). Also, it was proven that $CuFeS_2$ or$Cu_5FeS_4$ was used as a raw material because there was a small amount of Fe. As a result of analyzing inclusion of bronze bell No. 4, the bronze bell sample contained S(13.43%) and it is thought that sulfide group mineral was used, however, it had no Fe. Therefore, it is not connected to $CuFeS_2$ which is the main mineral of Korea. In addition, a strain line was shown with processing in bronze bell No. 2 and 4. As a result of provenance study of bronze bell No. 2 and 4 using the Pb isotope ratio, they or their raw materials are estimated to come from the southern China. Bronze bell No. 3 showed only Cu and Sn, and it is featured with a relatively low amount of Sn(6.63%). The microstructure has only phase, andintergranular corrosion was highly in progress.

• Korean Journal of Heritage: History & Science
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• v.53 no.4
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• pp.216-233
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• 2020

This study set out to review tomb culture in the Gyeongju region during the Bronze Age, and also examine the patterns of dolmens during their end phase. For these purposes, the study analyzed 18 tomb relics from the Bronze Age and nine from the early Iron Age. Gyeongju belongs to the Geomdan-ri cultural zone. Approximately 120 tombs from the Bronze Age have been excavated in the Gyeongju region. There are fewer tombs than dwellings in the region, which is a general characteristic of the Geomdan-ri cultural zone. Although the number of tombs is small, the detailed structure of the dead body is varied. During the Bronze Age, tombs in the Gyeongju region were characterized by more prolific construction of pit tombs, dolmens with boundaries, and stacked stone altars than were the cases in other areas. There is a great possibility that the pit tombs in the Gyeongju region were influenced by their counterparts in the northeastern parts of North Korea, given the spindle whorl artifacts buried at the Dongsan-ri sites. Dolmens with boundaries and stacked stone altars are usually distributed in the Songguk-ri cultural zone, and it is peculiar that instances of these are found in large numbers in the Gyeongju region as part of the Geomdanri cultural zone. Even in the early Iron Age, the building of dolmens with boundaries and stacked stone altars continued in the Gyeongju region under the influence of the Bronze Age. A new group of people moved into the area, and they crafted ring-rimmed pottery and built wooden coffin tombs. In the early Iron Age, new rituals performed in high places also appeared, and were likely to provide venues for memorial services for heavenly gods in town-center areas. The Hwacheon-ri Mt. 251-1 relic and the Jukdong-ri relic are ruins that exhibit the aspect of rituals performed in high places well. In these rituals performed in high places, a stacked stone altar was built with the same form as the dolmens with boundaries, and a similar rock to the cover stone of a dolmen was used. People continued to build and use dolmens with boundaries and stacked stone altars while sustaining the Bronze Age traditions, even into the early Iron Age, because the authority of dolmens was maintained. Some dolmens with boundaries and stacked stone altars, known as being Bronze Age in origin, would have continued to be used in ritual practices until the early Iron Age. Entering the latter half of the second century B.C., wooden coffin tombs began to propagate. This was the time when the southern provinces, including the Gyeongju region, were included in the East Asian network, with the spread of ironware culture and the arrival of artifacts from central China. Around this time, dolmen culture faded into history with a new era beginning in its place.

• Parasites, Hosts and Diseases
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• v.55 no.2
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• pp.197-201
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• 2017

Shahr-e Sukhteh (meaning burnt city in Persian) in Iran is an archeological site dated back to around 3,200-1,800 BC. It is located in Sistan and Baluchistan Province of Iran and known as the junction of Bronze Age trade routes crossing the Iranian plateau. It was appointed as current study area for paleoparasitological investigations. Excavations at this site have revealed various archeological materials since 1967. In the present study, sheep and carnivore coprolites excavated from this site were analyzed by means of rehydration technique using TSP solution for finding helminth eggs. Dicrocoelium dendriticum, Capillaria sp., and Taenia sp. eggs were identified, while some other objects similar to Anoplocephalidae and Toxocara spp. eggs were also retrieved from the samples but their measured parameters did not match those of these species. The present paper illustrates the first paleoparasitological findings of Bronze Age in eastern Iran supporting the economic activities, peopling, and communication as well as the appropriate condition for zoonotic helminthiasis life cycle in Shahr-e Sukhteh archeological site.

• Journal of Conservation Science
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• v.37 no.5
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• pp.545-556
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• 2021

In this study, we aimed to elucidate the materialistic characteristics of 11 pieces of earthenware belonging to the Neolithic and Bronze Age excavated from Jeongseon Auraji, South Korea. As a result, the chemical composition of earthenwares belonging to the early Bronze Age was distributed in the intermediate area between the Neolithic and Bronze Age earthenwares, but no significant difference was confirmed based on their manufacturing period. Upon comparison, the earthenwares excavated from Jeongseon Auraji site were found to comprise less acidic components than those excavated from Yeongdong, and are characterized by the alkaline components depending on the excavated site. In the rare earth elements distribution pattern, all the analyzed earthenwares exhibited similar pattern, confirming that the raw materials present in the clay were the same. As a result of microstructure analysis, the clay particles and voids were found to be irregularly distributed in the analyzed earthenwares. Neolithic earthenwares exhibited many irregular voids, and an arrangement of aluminosilicate, including feldspar, was observed along with the clay substrate. Furthermore, we confirmed that the empty space in early Bronze Age earthenwares was filled with fine particles and cube crystals. Moreover, the main mineral phase of earthenwares excavated from Jeongseon Auraji exhibited similar composition, and therefore, there was no significant difference in the firing temperature of these earthenwares. The firing temperature of the earthenwares ranged from 750 to 850℃.

• Journal of architectural history
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• v.17 no.5
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• pp.7-22
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• 2008

The purpose of this study is to examine the function of wall posts in pit-houses in the Bronze Age, in the Kyung-nam Province. Wall posts were found as post-holes, created after wooden posts had decayed. In this research, the role of wall posts is newly defined from the perspective of a construction engineering. While existing studies in archaeology regard wall posts as sub-posts that support the roof of a pit-house, this study views wall posts as piles installed to support the soil wall, not as sub-posts. Based on the existing reports on excavation in prehistoric settlement sites by archaeologists, the study examines the remnants of the wall posts and remains after a fire. The main findings of this study are threefold. First, the wall posts were installed not as posts but as piles, cut sharply and hammered along the building lines of a pit-house. Second, wall piles were used to support the walls during earthwork, such as excavating and banking for low ground, mostly because a large amount of soil is often lost during the process. Third, wall piles were used as post piles of retaining walls that enabled the installation of transverse wall panels, which were used to prevent the soil loss.

• Korean Journal of Heritage: History & Science
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• v.57 no.1
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• pp.146-159
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• 2024

In this study, a study on the production technology of the Buddha statue and the production of raw material origin was conducted through scientific analysis on the Bronze seated Bodhisattva Statue of Goseongsa Temple, a treasure. As a result of microstructure analysis through a metal microscope, it was confirmed that the microstructure of the Bronze seated Bodhisattva Statue of Goseongsa Temple was a process-type dendritic structure, and the casting structure of bronze was well represented, so it was manufactured through casting. Subsequently, as a result of analyzing the alloy composition ratio through SEM-EDS, it was identified as a ternary alloy with 81.26 wt% of copper (Cu) and 16.42 wt% of tin (Sn) and 1.72 wt% of lead (Pb). The results of the analysis of lead isotope ratios using a thermal ionization mass spectrometer (TIMS) were substituted into the distribution of lead isotope ratios on the Korean Peninsula, it was shown in corresponding to Jeolla-do and Chungcheong-do regions and North and South Gyeongsang Province. This suggests that the raw materials used in their production were likely sourced from the mines around Goseong Temple in Gangjin. Despite the fact that the statue is a medium and large Buddha with a total height of 51 centimeters, 1.72 wt% of lead (Pb) was found as a result of alloy composition ratio analysis, which showed a similar composition to the lead content ratio of small bronze and gilt-bronze Buddha statues. Therefore, we compared and analyzed the results of the analysis of the composition ratio of the alloys of bronze and gilt bronze statues, which has been scientifically analyzed with a compositional age similar to that of the Bronze seated Bodhisattva Statue of Goseongsa Temple. Comparison results, Various factors, such as the size of the Buddha statue as well as its stylistic characteristics and the age of composition, may exist in determining the alloy composition ratio of the bronze and gilt bronze Buddha statues, and it was confirmed that the alloy composition ratio or casting technology was properly adjusted when the Buddha statue was created. In other words, it is judged that a more comprehensive system of Buddha statue production technology should be investigated by conducting archaeological and art history studies on stylistic characteristics and age of composition, as well as scientific analysis results such as observation of internal structure, microstructure observation, and analysis of alloy composition ratio using radiation transmission irradiation.