• Journal of the Korean Institute of Landscape Architecture
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• v.46 no.6
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• pp.1-16
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• 2018

The decline in the construction industry has led to a decrease the profitability of small and medium-sized landscape contractors. To relieve this situation, small and medium-sized landscape contractors have continued to proactively find ways to enter global construction markets. However, many small and medium-sized landscape contractors face risks due to their lack of capacity and insufficient preparations to extend the business abroad. Thus, this study aims to analyze the current condition of the Vietnamese construction market and the related risk factors. It then suggests strategies to improve the small and medium-sized landscape contractors' competitiveness in that market. We investigated the business climate and analyzed risk factors. Finally, we developed expansion strategies and conducted in-depth interviews with six overseas construction professionals. The study results first showed that efforts to improve infrastructure and the increased demand for housing in Vietnam will lead to more opportunities for small and medium-sized landscape contractors entering the Vietnamese construction market. However, changes in the Vietnamese business climate may act as a variable. Second, we found that small and medium-sized landscape contractors' risk factors are mainly related to laws and regulations, government finance, market fluctuations, public administration system, minimum wage increases, financing and bonds, contracting, trees and materials, and design errors. Finally, small and medium-sized landscape contractors are required to consider the following when seeking to enter the Vietnamese construction market: short-term strategy and mid-to-long-term strategy. This study will be used as the basis for small and medium-sized landscape contractors to plan to enter the Vietnamese construction market and to contribute to the expansion of the global construction market in the landscape industry.

• Korean Journal of Environment and Ecology
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• v.35 no.2
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• pp.164-180
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• 2021

Plants Social Network(PSN) analysis combines the plant sociological method and the social network analysis to understand plant society focusing on environmental-to-plant and plant-to-plant relationships. PSN is at an early stage of research and require comparing plant society analyses in various environments and existing interspecies binding analysis. This study conducted a vegetation structural analysis of Mudeungsan National Park and compared the existing interspecies connection analysis with the PSN. A total of 60 plots were established for a survey on the Old Trail. The TWINSPAN and DCA analysis showed that the 60 survey plots were divided into the Quercus serrata-Pinus densiflora community (Community I) and the Quercus mongolica community (Community II) based on an altitude of 800 meters. We performed the interspecies correlation with more than 30% emergence frequency and the DCA analysis and compared the results with a focus on the major species in each colony. The results showed that Quercus serrata had a correlation of -0.450^** and -0.375^** with Pinus densiflora and Quercus mongolica, respectively. The DCA analysis also confirmed that Quercus serrata was located close to Pinus densiflora and far from Quercus mongolica along one axis. For the PSN analysis of PSN, 40 survey plots were added to investigate the species appearing in a total of 100 survey plots. The network structural analysis showed 378 links and a species having an average of 6 interspecies bindings. The density was 0.097, the diameter was 7, and the average path distance was 2.788, similar to the PSN analysis results of the Busan Metropolitan City. The plant social network analysis showed similar results to the existing interspecies combination analysis, enabling analyzing more data than the existing methods and observing the structure of plant society.

• Journal of the Korean Institute of Landscape Architecture
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• v.45 no.6
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• pp.28-39
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• 2017

The purpose of this study was to analyze the tendencies of the written test questions regarding the scientific plant names in the subject of scenic planting in the national qualification test for landscape engineers. To achieve this purpose, targeting the 20 questions in the subject of scenic planting, the study chronologically analyzed the types of the presented questions about the scientific names of the plants, the changes in their year-to-year number, and their presentation frequency over the past 11 years from 2006 to 2016. The following was found by an analysis of the tendency of the questions presented over 11 years from 2006 to 2016 regarding the scientific plant names in scenic planting in the written test of the national technical qualification examination for landscape engineers. The number of these questions was 234, and they were classified into 13 items: scientific names, families/genuses/ species, characteristics, barks, roots, foliage, flowers, fruits, properties, places of origin, stalks, leave, and uses. After analyzing the examination question trends per year, the year in which the highest number of questions was given was 2013 at 56.6%; the ratio of questions asking botanical names increased until 2013, although that ratio decreased starting in 2014 due to consistent efforts from the landscaping field. The plant species most frequently asked about were Betula platyphylla and Taxus cuspidata and others frequently asked about included Pinus densiflora, Acer palmatum, Forsythia koreana, Cercis chinensis, Robinia pseudoacacia, Cornus officinalis, Zelkova serrata, Abies holophylla, Camellia japonica, Sophora japonica, Chaenomeles sinensis, which were asked about more than 10 times. The number of plant species presented as question items or choice items was 240 and their presentation frequency was 806, Among these, 66 species were steadily presented more than five times. They were presented 486 times, accounting for 27.5% of all species. The number of the new plant species which began to be presented in 2009 were 119(49.58% including Quercus myrsinaefolia) of all 240 species, indicating that their presentation frequency was gradually increased. As a result of comparative analysis of questions on arbor and shrub, evergreen and leaf abscission that have been presented for recent 11 years, the questions on arbor were more than shrub, the questions on leaf abscission were more than evergreen.

• Journal of the Korean Institute of Landscape Architecture
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• v.43 no.4
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• pp.37-49
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• 2015

The goal of this research is to examine air temperature changes according to tree type, plantation type, roadside green area structure, and green volume of street green area within a city. The plantation type that could be analyzed for comparison by tree type with over 3 species was 1 rows of tree+shrubs. The results of analysis of average air temperature difference between pedestrian and car streets vis-a-vis 1 row of tree+shrub in high air temperature areas were: Pinus densiflora, $1.35^{\circ}C$; Zelkova serrata, $1.84^{\circ}C$; Ginkgo biloba, $2.00^{\circ}C$; Platanus occidentalis, $2.57^{\circ}C$. This standard large wide canopy species was analyzed by the roadside to provide shade to have a significant impact on air temperature reduction. In terms of analysis of the relationship between plantation type of roadside trees and air temperature, the average air temperature difference for 1 row of tree type was $1.80^{\circ}C$; for 2 rows of trees it was $2.15^{\circ}C$. In terms of analysis of the relationship between the roadside green area structure and air temperature, for tree type, average air temperature $1.94^{\circ}C$: for tree+shrub type, average air temperature $2.49^{\circ}C$; for tree+mid-size tree+shrub type, average air temperature $2.57^{\circ}C$. That is, air temperature reduction was more effective in a multi-layer structure than a single layer structure. In the relationship analysis of green volume and air temperature reduction, the air temperature reduction effect was enlarged as there was a large amount of green volume. There was a relationship with the green volume of the road, the size of the tree and number of tree layers and a multi-layer structured form of planting. The canopy volume was large and there were a great number of rows of the tree layer and the plantation type of multi-layer structure, which is what is meant through a relationship with the green volume along the roadside. Green composition standards for air temperature reduction effects and functional improvement were proposed based on the result. For a pedestrian street width of 3m or less in the field being ideal, deciduous broadleaf trees in which the canopy volume is small and the structure of the tree+shrub type through the greatest 1m green bend were proposed. For a pedestrian street width of over 3m, deciduous broadleaf trees in which the canopy volume is large and is multi-layer planted with green bend over 1m, tree+mid-size tree+shrub type was proposed.

• Korean Journal of Environment and Ecology
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• v.36 no.1
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• pp.102-111
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• 2022

Among protected areas, National Parks are rich in biodiversity, and the benefits of ecosystem services provided to human are higher than the others. Ecosystem service evaluation is being used to manage the value of national parks based on objective and scientific data. Ecosystem services are classified into four services: supporting, provisioning, regulating and cultural. The purpose of this study is to evaluate habitat quality among supporting services. Habitat Quality Model of InVEST was used to analyze. The coefficients of sensitivity and habitat initial value were reset by reflecting prior studies and the actual conditions of protected areas. Habitat quality of 21 national parks except Hallasan National Park was analyzed and mapped. The value of habitat quality was evaluated to be between 0 and 1, and the closer it is to 1, the more natural it is. As a result of habitat quality analysis, Seoraksan and Taebaeksan National Parks (0.90), Jirisan and Odaesan National Parks (0.89), and Sobaeksan National Park (0.88) were found to be the highest in the order. As a result of comparing the area and habitat quality of 18 national parks except for coastal-marine national parks, the larger the area, the higher the overall habitat quality. Comparing the value of habitat quality of each zone, the value of habitat quality was high in the order of the park nature preservation zone, the park nature environmental zone, the park cultural heritage zone, and the park village zone. Considering both the analysis of habitat quality and the legal regulations for each zone of use, it is judged that the more artificial acts are restricted, the higher the habitat quality. This study is meaningful in analyzing habitat quality of 21 National Parks by readjusting the parameters according to the situation of protected areas in Korea. It is expected to be easy to intuitively understand through accurate data and mapping, and will be useful in making policy decisions regarding the development and preservation of protected areas in the future.

• Korean Journal of Ecology and Environment
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• v.57 no.3
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• pp.123-133
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• 2024

To analyse the relationship between above-ground carbon stocks, species diversity and broadleaved forests structural diversity of South Korean forests, we collected vegetation inventories from environmental impact assessment projects over the past 10 years. The available data were selected and organised including tree species, DBH and area each projects. The data was classified by forest type, aboveground carbon stocks were calculated and compared, and the correlation between aboveground carbon stocks and biodiversity and structural diversity was analysed. The results showed that above-ground carbon stocks were higher in mixed forests and broadleaved forests and lower in needleleaved forests, similar to previous studies. However aboveground carbon stocks of mixed forests were higher in natural forests than in plantations. Aboveground carbon stocks in broadleaved forests were higher in plantations than natural forests, and there was no statistical different of between natural and plantations in needleleaved forest. This could be the result of a variety influences including biological and environmental factors in the study area, and further research is needed to analyse the effects on carbon sequestration. Correlation analysis showed no correlation between biodiversity and above-ground carbon stocks, but a positive correlation between structural diversity and above-ground carbon stocks. This indicates that above-ground carbon stocks in forests are associated with unevenness diameters and the proportion and evenness of tree species by diameter. In addition, it has been analysed that the high succession stages in forest have higher species diversity and structural diversity, and greater efficiency in the utilization of resources required for plant growth, leading to increased plant productivity and storage. Considering that the study sites were young forests with an average DBH of 14.8~23.7 cm, it is expected that carbon stocks will increase as biodiversity and structural diversity increase. Further research is needed to develop techniques to quantitatively assess the relationship of diversity to carbon stocks for policy use in assessing and increasing carbon stocks in forests.

• Journal of Korean Society for Atmospheric Environment
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• v.10 no.E
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• pp.371-386
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• 1994

Ecological examinations of the radial growth Patterns of pine trees(Pinus densiflora Sieb. et Zucc) growing on Mt. Namsan in central Seoul were made to test a Proposition that the pine trees decline due to the influence of air pollution and acid rain, which was proposed by some researchers in Korea, and the potential effects of current level of air pollutants to the growth of the Pine trees in central Seoul have been speculated. Tree-rings of 40 trees sampled at 3 sites of Mt. Namsan were prepared and examined using a Computer-aided Tree-Ring Measuring System at Kookmin University, Korea. Air Pollutant data collected by the Ministry of Environment( MOE ) and the Forestry Research Institute(FRI) were used to infer the general conditions of the environment. Correlation analysis was applied to the data set of tree growth and the other environmental factors. General information derived from the close examination of the tree-rings and the data on air pollution, drought and the other biological conditions suggested that the growth of the pine trees was severely affected by the occurrence of drought(climatic variation), the prevalence of the pine leaf gall midges(insects), and the suppression by the black locust trees(Robinia pseudo-acacia L.) (competition among trees). While the current condition of air pollution in Seoul cannot be categorized as good, the concentrations of air pollutants are not so high as to cause acute damages to the trees. In addition, while the data of rain acidity showed episodic low PHs of under 4.0, the average of them is far less acidic than those which were observed in either northeastern United States or central Europe, where the decline of trees were not solely attributed to any of the air pollutants. Considering the sequential facts that one of the most important environmental factors that affect the growth of trees is weather condition of the forest that the proposition of the decline of the pine trees was made without careful examination of the growth patterns and past growth history of them as well as the complex influences of many other factors including the weather conditions to the growth of trees, and that no objective explanation has been made on the causal relationships between the current condition of air pollution and the growth of the trees, such a proposition should be evaluated as invalid for the explanation of tree growth on Mt. Namsan in central Seoul, Korea. The author evaluates the factors of air pollution (including acid rain) as the predisposing factors, which may have the Potentials to chronically affect the tree growth at the forest ecosystem on Mt. Namsan for a long period of time. Ecosystem ecological studies should be further carried out to carefully explain both the functional and the structural aspects of the ecosystem processes, which include the biogeochemistry and the long-term changes of soil conditions as well as the growth of the other tree species on the mountain.

• Journal of Korean Society of Forest Science
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• v.102 no.1
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• pp.38-58
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• 2013

The existence of endemism in many parts of the world is an important factor for conservationists. Conservation can only be carried out under national legislation, and national endemics, which have very limited ranges, fully depend on the effort and success of conservation. A total of 523 vascular plant taxa were listed in the latest national checklist by Ministry of Environment in 2005, while the 'Creation and Furtherance of Arboretums Act' including a national endemic list (appendix 4-1) was established by Korea Forest Service and was legislated as a law in late 2011. This legislation by Korea Forest Service on endemism of Korean vascular plants have required much attention because of discrepancies of nomenclature, taxonomic bias and inflation. Examining data for both lists proposed by Ministry of Environment and Korea Forest Service, of the total of 360 legislated taxa, around 286 taxa are shared with the list of Ministry of Environment, of which about 80% have been found as common taxa. Around 67(18.7%) are typographic errors, and 14 taxa (3.9%) are recorded as illegitimate and invalidly published names. Through this analysis 12 taxa (3.4%) were found in China as well as in Korea and these are thought to be non Korean endemic taxa. Taken together, the legislated list displayed 1/4 (24.9%) errors out of the total list. Only 59 taxa (16.5%) are identified as national endemic species. The remainder are either unresolved candidates (73 taxa, 20.4%) or synonyms (196 taxa, 54.7%) status. It must be noted, that the concept of endemism very much depends on the knowledge of the species concept, taxonomic bias and geographical range of a species. Also, the most major nomenclatural problem tend to be more stable if the information on database about Korea Plant Name, which is managed by Korea National Arboretum are well updated year to year. These exaggerated numbers underscore the urgency for regional conservation planning and implementing effective strategies to preserve these real endemic taxa into the future.

• Korean Journal of Environment and Ecology
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• v.33 no.4
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• pp.440-446
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• 2019

This study examined the growth and fruiting characteristics and the acorns biomass allometric equation of Quercus acuta to provide reference data related to the growth and seed supply during the restoration of evergreen forest in the warm temperate zone in Wando Island, Korea. For the growth survey, we selected and cut three sample trees having a mean diameter at breast height (DBH) to investigate the growth analysis through a stem analysis. We then developed the allometric equation (Y=aX+b) of DBH and tree height growth characteristic (Y) according to the average tree age (X) of sampled trees and estimated the DBH and tree height according to the age of Quercus acuta. For the fruiting survey, we selected and cut three sample trees with full fruit in August when, they are at the early mature fruiting stage, for the analysis. To develop the acorns/tree biomass allometric equation of Quercus acuta, we selected and cut ten sample trees of evenly divided diameters. The acorns biomass allometric equation ($Y=aX^b$) was derived by analyzing the biomass (Y) and the growth characteristics (X), such as the DBH, tree height, crown width, and crown height. The allometric equations of average tree age according to DBH and tree height were Y=0506X-2.064 ($R^2=0.999$) and Y=0.321X+0689 ($R^2=0.992$), respectively. The developed allometric equations estimated that the DBH were 3.0cm, 8.1cm, 13.1cm and 18.2cm while the tree heights were 3.9m, 7.1m, 10.3m, and 13.5m when the tree ages were 10, 20, 30, and 40 years, respectively. The analysis results of fruiting characteristics showed that the length, the diameter, the number of fruits, and the number of acorns per fruiting branch had the statistically significant difference and tended to decrease from the upper part to the lower part of crown downward. The total number of acorns was 1,312 acorns/tree in the upper part, 115 acorns/tree in the middle part, and 5 acorns/tree in the lower part of the crown. The allometric equation for the amount of acorns with DBH as an independent variable was $Y=0.003X^{4.260}$ with the coefficient of determination at 0.896. Although the coefficient of determination of the allometric equation using only DBH as the independent variable was lower than that using DBH and tree height ($D^2H$), it would be more practical to consider only DBH as the independent variable because of measurement errors.

• Journal of Korean Society of Forest Science
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• v.88 no.4
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• pp.510-522
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• 1999

The air pollutants ; $SO_2$, $SO{_4}^{-2}$, $NO{_3}^-$, $Cl^-$ are absorbed into soils through falling with dusts and rain from the atmosphere. The sources of heavy metal contaminants in the environments are agricultural and horticultural materials, sewage sludges, fossil fuel combustion, metallurgical industries, electronics and waste disposal etc.. The soils and hydrosphere can be polluted on the way of the circulation of these heavy metals. Studied pollutant anions are $SO{_4}^{-2}$, $NO{_3}^-$ and $Cl^-$ and heavy metals are Se, Mo, Zn, Cd, Pb, Mn, Cr, Co, V, As, Cu and Ni which are the elements to be concerned with the essentials for plants, with animal and human health. This study is with the aim of selecting the species of roadside trees and green space trees which have excellent absorption of air pollutants and heavy metals from the atmosphere and the soils in the urban area. Two areas are designated to carry out this study : urban area ; Kwangju city and rural area ; the yard of Forest Environment Institute of Chollanam-do, at Sanje-ri, Sampo-myum, Naju city, Chollanam-do (23km away from Kwangju). This study is carried out to understand the movement of anions and heavy metals from the soils to the trees in both areas, the absorption of anions and heavy metals from atmosphere into leaves and the amounts of anions and heavy metals in leaves and fine roots(< 1mm dia.) of roadside trees and green space trees in Kwangju and trees in the yard of Forest Environment Institute of Chollanam-do. The tree species selected for this study in both areas are Ginkgo biloba, Quercus acutissima, Cedrus deodara, Platanus occidentalis, Robinia pseudoacacia, Alnus japonica. Metasequoia glyptostroboides. Zekova serrata. Prunus serrulata var. spontanea, and Pinus densiflora. The results of the study are as follows : 1. $SO{_4}^{-2}$, $NO{_3}^-$ and $Cl^-$ concentrations are higher in the soils of the urban area than in those of the rural area, and $NO{_3}^-$ and $SO{_4}^{-2}$ are higher in the leaves than in the roots due to the absorption of the these pollutants through the stomata. 2. Ginkgo biloba, Robinia pseudoacacia. Zekova serrata, Quercus acutissima, and Platanus occidentalis can be adequated to the roadside trees and the environmental trees due to their good absorption of $NO{_3}^-$ and $SO{_4}^{-2}$. 3. Heavy metals in the soils of both areas are in the order of Mn > Zn > V > Cr > Pb > Ni > Cu > Mo> Cd, and in the leaves and roots of the trees in the both areas are in the order of Mn>Zn>Cr>Cu>V>Ni. Both orders are similar ones except V. There are more in the urban soils than in the rural soils in amount of Mn, Zn, Pb, V, Cu. 4. It is supposed that there is no antagonism between Mn and Zn in this study. 5. Se, Co and As are not detected in the soils, the leaves and the roots in both areas. Sn, Mo, Cd and Pb are also not detected in the leaves and roots in spite of considerable amount in the soils of both areas.