The purpose of this study is to analyze the verbal interaction during elementary students' hypothesis generation learning. For this study, 32 6th graders were selected and were assorted into heterogeneous small-groups by achievement levels. The topics of hypothesis generation learning were developed by analyzing the current elementary school curriculum. Each group's verbal interactions were audio/video taped and transcribed. After coding the protocol and having student retrospective interview, types and frequency of verbal interaction were analyzed. The frequency of verbal interaction during observation was highest and that of questioning situation identification was lowest. Regarding to the quality of verbal interactions, low level interactions were significantly frequent during observation. On the other hand, hypothetical explicans generation revealed high frequency of high level interactions. The results revealed that elementary students can make high level verbal interactions through hypothesis generation learning.

This paper describes the types of models that biology majors use and how they go about making their models in learning key concepts in biology such as the cell membrane, cytoskeleton and cell structure. Initially, a total of 44 biology students from all year levels enrolled in the second semester of calendar year 2008-2009 were asked to make their respective models of the cell membrane, cytoskeleton and cell structure. They were also asked to answer an open-ended questionnaire. Of the 44, only 20 (five from each year level) were randomly selected for a one-on-one interview. Results showed that the student-generated models from all year levels were mostly analogies, some textbook definitions and occasional drawings. In making their model, students first read the text; second, outline similarities in structure and function or both; and third, make the model. Data suggest that models are good diagnostic tools for identifying critical thinking skills of students. In this case, students mostly demonstrate the ability to recognize similarities in structure and function between the concept and their model. Some senior students demonstrated integration and reflective thinking in making their models. Thus, more opportunities for student-generated models must be available if students were to develop integration and reflective thinking in their models.

There has been disagreement on the importance of definitions in science education. Yager (1983) believes that one crisis in science education was due to the considerable emphasis upon the learning of definitions. Hobson (2004) disagrees with physics textbooks that do not provide general definition on energy. Some textbooks explain that "there is no completely satisfactory definition of energy" or they can only "struggle to define it." In general, imprecise definitions in textbooks (Bauman, 1992) and inaccuracies in definition provided by teachers (Galili & Lehavi, 2006) may cause alternative conceptions. Besides, there are at least four challenges in defining physical concepts: precision, circularity, context and completeness in knowledge. These definitional problems that have been discussed in The Feynman Lectures, may impede the learning of physical concepts. A meta-study approach is employed to examine about five hundreds journal papers that may discuss definitions in physics, problems in defining physical concepts and how they may result in alternative conceptions. These journal papers are mainly selected from journals such as American Journal of Physics, International Journal of Science Education, Journal of Research in Science Teaching, Physics Education, The Physics Teachers, and so on. There are also comparisons of definitions with definitions from textbooks, Dictionaries of Physics, and English Dictionaries. To understand the nature of alternative conception, Lee et al. (2010) have suggested a theoretical framework to describe the learning issues by synthesizing cognitive psychology and science education approaches. Taking it a step further, this study incorporates the challenges in semantics and epistemology, proposes that there are at least four variants of alternative conceptions. We may coin the term, 'alternative definitions', to refer to the commonly available definitions, which have these four problems in defining physics concepts. Based on this study, alternative definitions may result in at least four variants of alternative conceptions. Note that these four definitional problems or challenges in definitions cannot be easily resolved. Educators should be cognizant of the four variants of alternative conceptions which can arise from alternative definitions. The concepts of alternative definitions can be useful and possibly generalized to science education and beyond.

This paper takes another approach in assessing students' perception of mathematics. Instead of asking for verbal description of the students' perception of mathematics, we asked the respondents who were all college students to draw their perception of mathematics. This relatively new approach enabled students to take a second look of how they perceived math and, at the same time, explored students' creativity and provided a less austere appearance to mathematics which was taken usually in a more formal and severe manner. This approach of assessing students' perception of mathematics generated new information that could not be normally gleaned from other approaches like Likert Scale. Some drawings of mathematics of the respondents reinforced their math affect towards mathematics. For those who hated math, their drawings revealed so the same is true with those who loved mathematics. Examining the visual representations of mathematics and looking for commonalities, the researcher found a number of interesting themes that may shed some light to educators' understanding of students' math affect.

This study aimed to enhance creative problem solving skill by using the Creative Problem Solving (CPS) learning model which was developed based on creative problem solving approach and five essential features of inquiry. The key strategy of the CPS learning model is using real life problem situations to provide students opportunities to practice creative problem solving skill through 5 learning steps: engaging, problem exploring, solutions creating, plan executing, and concepts examining. The science content used for examining the CPS learning model was "matter and properties of matter" that consists of 3 learning units: Matter, Solution, and Acid-Base Solution. The process to assess the effectiveness of the learning model used the experimental design of the Pretest-Posttest Control-Group Design. Seventh grade-students in the experimental group learned by the CPS learning model. At the same time, students at the same grade level in the control group learned by conventional learning model. The learning models and students' prior knowledge levels were served as the independent variables. The creative problem solving skill was classified in to 4 aspects in: fluency, flexibility, originality, and reasoning. The results indicated that in all aspects, the students' mean scores of creative problem solving between students in experimental group and control group were significantly different at the .05 level. Also, the progression of students' creative problem solving skills was found highly progressed at the later instructional periods. When comparing the creative problem solving scores between groups of students with different levels of prior knowledge, the differences of their creative problem solving scores were founded at .05 level. The findings of this study confirmed that the CPS learning model is effective in enhancing the students' creative problem solving skill.

In this study, 15 evaluation questions about light were developed and presented to 30 middle school students, and then the theory of knowledge space was used to analyze the status of the middle school students' knowledge about light. Not only was the state of the students' knowledge about light intended to be measured by schematizing the knowledge hierarchy obtained; the data obtained were also intended to be used as basic materials to improve the teaching methods used. To achieve the purpose of this study, the evaluation results, the individual knowledge state, and the hierarchy of questions were analyzed. As a result, different knowledge structures were found in the individuals and groups, and it was determined that individuals and groups should be diagnosed differently. In addition, the implication that there is a connection between each question and the individual knowledge state was drawn.

As the recent demand for human resources in science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM), the development of professional STEM teacher is called worldwide. It is becoming a critical need in teacher education in order to educate student teachers, and prepare pre-service and beginning teachers for high quality of teaching competency. To promote the competency for $21^{st}$ century STEM teachers, the epistemology of technological pedagogical content knowledge (TPACK) is currently considered as the essential qualities of knowledge for highly qualified teachers. The aim of this study is explore the effect of case-based learning approach on TPACK competency of pre-service STEM teachers. In order to develop the pre-service teachers' competency regarding effective integration of technologies into teaching specific content areas, a series of innovative case study teaching in science and mathematics was presented to 43 participants of pre-service physics, chemistry, biology, mathematics, and computer teachers during a course of information and communication technology (ICT) in Education at Khon Kaen University, Thailand. After finishing a case presentation, the pre-service teachers were encouraged into a forum of critical open discussion by considering the potential impact of the case and the TPACK framework. They were investigated instructional design competency of using ICT tools into student learning process and their personal beliefs about ICT in educational process both before and after. The participant's reactions and learning was evaluated by using a self-reported questionnaire and an implementation log of content-specific learning process design, respectively. Results showed a change of their beliefs and the transformation of their TPACK competency in STEM teaching. In an effort to better serve the needs of high quality STEM teachers, the results of this study illustrated that the competency of TPACK could be particularly considered as a core attributes for future STEM teachers. By the way, case-based learning approach can play an effective part in preparing and professing the TPACK competency for STEM teachers.

Inquiry activity is a major source of student investigation which both of the national curriculum standards strongly emphasize for achieving scientific literacy. The purpose of this study was to examine inquiry activities incorporated in high school biology textbooks used in China and Korea. The inquiry activities were examined with regard to inquiry level and science process skills. Bell's and a modification of Padilla's framework were used in these analyses. Results show that the Korean textbooks were more exclusively occupied by simple inquiry activities - None of them provided activity more complex than level 2 inquiry. In addition, the Korean textbooks had uniformly basic science process skills, whereas their Chinese counterparts gave students some challenges for higher level process skills. Therefore, it cannot be guaranteed that the activities in the Korean textbooks are helpful in guiding students toward a gradual progression to high-level inquiry. Implications for inquiry-based science education were suggested based on the results of the study.

Environmental education is usually taught across the curriculum in most of the countries. This teaching approach has been a challenge for teachers to implement it especially in the Malaysian curriculum context. Thus, science teachers require effectual Pedagogical Content Knowledge of Environmental Education (PCK-EE). The purpose of this study was to explore the influence of teaching option and teaching experience on science teachers' PCK-EE. Five components of PCK-EE were investigated in this study, which were: a) knowledge of curriculum, b) knowledge of content, c) knowledge of student, d) knowledge of teaching strategies, and e) knowledge of evaluation. 347 secondary science teachers from the state of Selangor have participated in this survey study. The questionnaire used had 60 items. The findings revealed teaching option has a significant influence on science teachers' knowledge of content (p=0.000); knowledge of student (p=0.000) and knowledge of teaching strategies (p=0.016). In the case of teaching experience, it was found that there is a low correlation on knowledge of content (r=0.174) and knowledge of evaluation (r=0.170) only. Implication of this study leads to the suggestion in enhancing teachers' service training to improve their PCK-EE and subsequently their ability in teaching environmental education across curriculum.