• Journal of Nutrition and Health
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• v.38 no.10
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• pp.827-835
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• 2005

The purpose of this study was to investigate the relation among mineral intakes, blood pressure, and blood lipids for health management of Korean adults over 20 years old. Subjects were recruited from the district where they lived, which included rural (Yoju, n = 137) , coastal (Taean, n = 100) , and urban district (Suwon, n : 117) . hnthropornekical measurement, blood pressure measurement, dietary intake assessment using 24-hour recall method, and blood collection and analysis of blood lipids were conducted. The average age, height, weight, and BMI were 54.1 years, 168.5 cm, 67.3 kg, and 24.5 kg/$m^{2}$ for men and 53.9 years,153.8 cm,59.2 kg, and 25.0 kg/$m^{2}$ for women, respectively. The mean daily intakes of total food and energy were 1219.1 g and 1740.9 kcal for men and 1071.3 g and 1432.6 kcal for women. The mineral intakes of men and women were 448.5 mg and 400.4 mg for calcium,955.3 mg and 803.7 mg for phosphorus, 13.3 mg and 11.1 mg for iron, 4302.8 mg and 3393.3 mg for sodium,2588.0 mg and 2264.9 mg for potassium, and 8.9 mg and 7.3 mg for zinc. The daily intakes of energy, calcium, zinc, vitamin $B_{2}$, and vitamin I were $76.1\%$, $60.1\%$, $73.1\%$, $68.6\%$, and $80.4\%$ of RDAs, respectively. The intakes of energy, calcium, zinc, vitamin $B_{2}$ and I were not meet Korean RDAs. Especially, calcium, zinc, and vitamin $B_{2}$ were less than $75\%$ of RDAs. Blood pressure of the subjects was 128.3/75.5 mmHg for men and 124.1/73.7 mmHg for women. Serum lipids of men and women were 180.2 mg/dL and 184.9 mg/dL for total cholesterol, 160.8 mg/dL and 137.6 mg/dL for triglyceride,41.5 mg/dL and 44.7 mg/dL for HDL-cholesterol,106.6 mg/dL and 112.7 mg/dL for LDL-cholesterol, and 3.5 and 3.3 for atherogenic index. While serum triglyceride and AI of men was significantly higher, HDL-cholesterol was lower than those of women. In the relation among mineral intakes, blood pressure, and serum lipids, we found a significantly negative correlation of intakes of calcium, calcium/phosphorus, calcium density with systolic blood pressure. There were significantly negative correlation between intake of calcium/phosphorus and serum cholesterol, calcium density and serum cholesterol, sodium intake and serum HDL-cholesterol. Based on these results, we concluded that high intakes of calcium, calcium/phosphorus and low sodium intake were associated with favorable blood pressure and serum lipid profiles in adult men and women. (Korean J Nutrition 38(10): 827$\sim$835,2005)

• Nutrition Research and Practice
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• v.14 no.5
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• pp.501-518
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• 2020

BACKGROUND/OBJECTIVES: Sodium intake is positively associated with blood pressure, which may increase the risk for cardiovascular disease (CVD). Therefore, we assessed the disease burden of CVD attributable to sodium intakes above 2,000 mg/day and prospectively investigated the association between dietary/urinary sodium levels and the risk of all-cause and CVD-mortality using the Korea National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (KNHNES). SUBJECTS/METHODS: A total of 68,578 and 33,113 participants were included for comparative risk assessment (CRA) analysis and mortality analysis, respectively, and mean follow-up time for mortality was 5.4 years. CRA analysis was used to quantify attributable incidences of stroke, ischemic heart disease (IHD), and deaths attributable to sodium intake between 1998 and 2016. Cox proportional hazard regression model was used to determine the association between sodium intake and all-cause and CVD-mortality. RESULTS: Mean dietary sodium intake decreased over time, reaching 3,647 mg/day in 2016. Similarly, the population attributable fractions of stroke and IHD, and the number of CVD-associated deaths attributable to high sodium intake/excretion also decreased. In terms of association with mortality, when participants were grouped into quartiles (Q) by energy-adjusted sodium intake, those in Q2 had a lower risk of all-cause mortality than those in Q1 with lower intakes. The risk of CVD-associated mortality was higher only in females with high sodium intake in Q4 than those in Q1. CONCLUSIONS: This nationwide data indicates that, in line with previous studies of multiple cohorts, both low and high sodium intakes may be associated with an increased risk of mortality; therefore, the optimal sodium intake for Koreans needs to be revised.

• Journal of Nutrition and Health
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• v.57 no.1
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• pp.65-74
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• 2024

Purpose: Sodium is essentially required for homeostasis and physiological functions, but excessive sodium consumption increases the risk of obesity and other chronic disorders. Korean studies on the sodium-obesity relationship are limited, and thus, this study was undertaken to determine the nature of the relationship between sodium intake and obesity in Korean adults. Methods: Forty-two participants were divided into 2 groups according to body mass index (BMI, non-obese BMI < 25 kg/m², obese BMI ≥ 25 kg/m²). Dietary intakes and eating habits were analyzed using 3-day food records and a food frequency questionnaire. Anthropometric data were obtained from bioimpedance results, and fasting glucose and lipid levels were measured. Results: Mean weight, BMI, waist and hip circumferences, and body fat mass were greater in the obese group than in the non-obese group for men and women. Skeletal muscle mass and body fat mass were higher in obese women than in non-obese women. Biochemical data were no different in these two subgroups except triglycerides (TGs), which were higher in obese women. Nutrient intakes were not significantly different in obese and non-obese groups. However, obese men consumed excessive sodium, while obese women consumed slightly more than non-obese women. Obese men preferred salty foods and tended to overeat. Positive correlations were found between sodium intake and weight in men and percent body fat mass (PBFM) in women. Correlation analysis (adjusted for energy intake) of the relation between sodium intake and obesity-related factors showed sodium intake was positively correlated with PBFM and TG in women. Conclusion: This anthropometric and biochemical data analysis emphasizes the need for awareness and interventions to mitigate the health risks of elevated sodium consumption. Our findings should aid future studies on the relationship between sodium and obesity and contribute to preventing and managing this metabolic condition.

• Nutrition Research and Practice
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• v.4 no.2
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• pp.155-162
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• 2010

Epidemiological evidence of the effects of dietary sodium, calcium, and potassium, and anthropometric indexes on blood pressure is still inconsistent. To investigate the relationship between dietary factors or anthropometric indexes and hypertension risk, we examined the association of systolic and diastolic blood pressure (SBP and DBP) with sodium, calcium, and potassium intakes and anthropometric indexes in 19~49-year-olds using data from Korean National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (KNHANES) III. Total of 2,761 young and middle aged adults (574 aged 19~29 years and 2,187 aged 30~49 years) were selected from KNHANES III. General information, nutritional status, and anthropometric data were compared between two age groups (19~29 years old and 30~49 years old). The relevance of blood pressure and risk factors such as age, sex, body mass index (BMI), weight, waist circumference, and the intakes of sodium, potassium, and calcium was determined by multiple regression analysis. Multiple regression models showed that waist circumference, weight, and BMI were positively associated with SBP and DBP in both age groups. Sodium and potassium intakes were not associated with either SBP or DBP. Among 30~49-year-olds, calcium was inversely associated with both SBP and DBP (P = 0.012 and 0.010, respectively). Our findings suggest that encouraging calcium consumption and weight control may play an important role in the primary prevention and management of hypertension in early adulthood.

• Journal of Nutrition and Health
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• v.35 no.7
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• pp.763-770
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• 2002

This study was carried out to see dietary intakes of patients with coronary heart disease since we don't understand their dietary patterns even though the mortality and prevalence rate of coronary hear disease are increasing in this country. We studied 75 coronary heart disease patients and 150 randomly selected controls, matched for age, sex, height and weight, in a population based study. All subjects completed a questionnaire that included disease history, diagnosis time, current treatment, etc., a 24 hour dietary recall, and measurement of height and weight. Compared to controls, patients had less likely to drink alcohol and smoke cigarette (p＜0.05). The energy intake of patients was significantly lower than that of controls, but the intakes of fiber, $\beta$-carotene, sodium, folate, vitamin C, potassium in male patients and those of vitamin C and sodium in female patients were significantly higher than those of controls (p＜0.05). Mean adequacy ratio and dietary variety score of patients were also higher than those of controls (p＜0.05). Patient group's consumed less cereals than controls, but more vegetables, milk products, and nuts in male patients and fruits, beans and seasonings in female patients compared to controls'. There were not significant differences of lipid compositions between two groups, except linolenic acid. These data suggest that patients with coronary heart disease in Korea had better dietary nutrient intakes compared to healthy controls, which might be helpful to prevent recurrence of coronary heart disease.

• The Korean Journal of Food And Nutrition
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• v.33 no.5
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• pp.447-458
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• 2020

This study assessed yearly trends of food and nutrient intake among high school students aged 16 to 18 years (n=2,377) using the 2007~2015 Korea National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (KNHANES). Yearly trends of food or nutrient intake were analyzed via logistic regression analysis. The results showed that consumption of sugars & sweets, and beverages & alcohols was increased rapidly during this period (p<0.0001). Intake of meat & meat products, and fish & shellfish also was increased (p=0.0008). Intake of grains and grain products was increased until year 2011 but declined after 2012 (p=0.0025). Consumption of vegetables, and milk & milk products was decreased (p=0.0395). Intake of protein, fat, thiamin, riboflavin, niacin, and iron was increased (p=0.0445). Carbohydrate energy ratio was decreased, whereas fat energy ratio was increased (p=0.0235). Most nutrient intakes satisfied the dietary reference intakes for Koreans except dietary fiber (19.6~26.2%), calcium (46.9~55.2%) and sodium (more than 221.4%) during this period. There was a significant positive correlation between most food group intakes and most nutrient intakes (p=0.0468). Therefore, it is crucial to increase dietary fiber and calcium intake and decrease consumption of sugars, fats and sodium through diverse eating of food groups to ensure balanced nutrition of subjects.

• Korean Journal of Human Ecology
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• v.10 no.4
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• pp.411-419
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• 2001

This study was peformed to assess the nutritional status of female nursing home residents by dietary intake. The subjects were 60 nursing home residents aged over 60 from 3 different nursing homes in Seoul, Cheonan and Chunchon. Dietary intake was assessed by 24-hr recall and nutrient intake was calculated using CAN-Pro and database for vitamin E established by authors. To establish vitamin E database, we analyzed vitamin E concentration using HPLC in several foods consumed frequently by nursing home residents. The results of nutrient intake were as follows; 1) Average daily intakes of energy, protein, phosphorous, iron, vitamin $B_1$ and niacin were higher than RDA, but calcium, vitamin $B_2$ and niacin of Chunchon were lower than RDA. 2) Intakes of protein, sodium and niacin of Cheonan residents were significantly higher than those of Seoul. 3) Intakes of phosphorous, potassium, vitamin $B_1$ and dietary fiber of Cheonan residents were significantly higher than Seoul and Chunchon. 4) Intakes of sodium and cholesterol of Seoul residents were higher than Cheonan and Chunchon. 5) Average daily intake of vitamin E was lower than RDA. Especially vitamin A intake of Cheonan residents was significantly lower than other two cities.

• Korean Journal of Community Nutrition
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• v.10 no.5
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• pp.677-692
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• 2005

The assessment of sodium intake is complex because of the variety and nature of dietary sodium. This study intended to develop a dish frequency questionnaire (DFQ) for estimating the habitual sodium intake and a short DFQ for screening subjects with high or low sodium intake. For DFQ112, one hundred and twelve dish items were selected based on the information of sodium content of the one serving size and consumption frequency. Frequency of consumption was determined through nine categories ranging from more than 3 times a day to almost never to indicate how often the specified amount of each food item was consumed during the past 6 months. One hundred seventy one adults (male: 78, female: 93) who visited hypertension or health examination clinic participated in the validation study. DFQ55 was developed from DFQ112 by omitting the food items not frequently consumed, selecting the dish items that showed higher sodium content per one portion size and higher consumption frequency. To develop a short DFQs for classifying subjects with low or high sodium intakes, the weighed score according to the sodium content of one protion size was given to each dish item of DFQ25 or DFQ14 and multiplied with the consumption frequency score. A sum index of all the dish items was formed and called sodium index (Na index). For validation study the DFQ112, 2-day diet record and one 24-hour urine collection were analyzed to estimate sodium intakes. The sodium intakes estimated with DFQ112 and 24-h urine analysis showed $65\%$ agreement to be classified into the same quartile and showed significant correlation (r=0.563 p<0.05). However, the actual amount of sodium intake estimated with DFQ112 (male: 6221.9mg, female: 6127.6mg) showed substantial difference with that of 24-h urine analysis (male: 4556.9mg, female: 5107.4mg). The sodium intake estimated with DFQ55 (male: 4848.5mg, female: 4884.3mg) showed small difference from that estimated with 24-h urine analysis, higher proportion to be classfied into the same quartile and higher correlation with the sodium intakes estimated with 24-h urine analysis and systolic blood pressure. It seems DFQ55 can be used as a tool for quantitative estimation of sodium intake. Na index25 or Na index14 showed $39\~50\%$ agreement to be classified into the same quartile, substantial correlations with the sodium intake estimated with DFQ55 and significant correlations with the sodium intake estimated with 24-h urine analysis. When point 119 for Na index25 was used as a criterion of low sodium intake, sensitivity, specificity and positive predictive value was $62.5\%,\;81.8\%\;and\;53.2\%$, respectively. When point 102 for Na index14 was used as a criterion of high sodium intake, sensitivity, specificity and positive predictive value were $73.8\%,\;84.0\%,\;62.0\%$, respectively. It seems the short DFQs using Na index 14 or Na index25 are simple, easy and proper instruments to classify the low or high sodium intake group.

• Korean Journal of Community Nutrition
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• v.17 no.6
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• pp.752-771
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• 2012

This study was conducted to investigate the effect of sodium reduction education program of a public health center on the blood pressure, blood biochemical profile and sodium intake of hypertensive adults. The program continued for 16 weeks with an 8-week nutrition education and an 8-week follow-up to forty two subjects, 6 males and 36 females aged 46 to 80 years. Subjects received nutrition education including lectures, activities, cooking classes and nutrition counseling. Physical fitness, management of stress, and nutrition counseling were provided during the follow-up. The program was evaluated three times, before and after the nutrition education, and after the follow-up. Systolic blood pressure (p < 0.0001) and diastolic blood pressure (p < 0.001) were decreased after completion of the program. Body weight (p < 0.005), percent body fat (p < 0.005) and body mass index (p < 0.001) were decreased, too. There were no significant differences in blood glucose, HDL-cholesterol and triglycerides, while elevated levels of total cholesterol (p < 0.001) and LDL-cholesterol (p < 0.001) appeared after the program completion. Decreased intakes of vitamin A (p < 0.05), ${\beta}$-carotene (p < 0.001) and sodium (p < 0.001) were observed. Consumption frequency of noodles, soups, stews, kimchi, fishes/shellfish, seasoned vegetables, and salted seafoods/pickles (p < 0.05~p < 0.001) were decreased, while that of all food groups were not changed during the follow-up. Total score of nutrition knowledge related to sodium intake and hypertension (p < 0.001), and that of dietary behavior associated with high sodium intakes were changed positively (p < 0.001) only during the nutrition education. This sodium reduction education program, including the follow-up study showed positive effects on the blood pressure, sodium intake, nutrition knowledge and dietary behavior of hypertensive adults.

• The Korean Journal of Food And Nutrition
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• v.31 no.6
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• pp.897-910
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• 2018

The purpose of this study was to examine sodium intakes from soup, stew and noodle in school lunch using sodium content database separately developed for the solid part, liquid part of soup and stew (liquid based dishes) in middle school students. Two hundred fifty two middle school students in Seoul were asked about awareness towards reducing sodium intake and soup/stew intake provided in school lunch in September 2015. Only 68% of students were aware of the 'Day without soup/stew' event and why those events were held. Girls tend to consume more all solid and liquid parts of soups than boys in Miso soup (50.0% vs 36.2%), Bean sprout soup (56.6% vs 44.8%), Seaweed soup (61.8% vs 45.7%), Beef Radish soup (61.8% vs 59.5%), and Korean pasta soup with Kimchi (58.1% vs 46.6%). Average sodium intake from soup/stew/noodle dishes in school lunch was $379.6{\pm}183.9mg$ if behaviors of eating solid or liquid parts were considered and $556.8{\pm}190.6mg$ if behaviors of eating solid or liquid parts were not considered. Based on the results, the difference of sodium intake depends on the consuming behaviors of liquid parts of soup and stew dishes. It is necessary to establish and use a sodium database for each solid part and liquid part separately in soup, stew and noodle dishes to assess more accurate sodium intake. Education on the reduction of sodium intake through proper behaviors is salient in the achievement of a healthy diet.