• Journal of Ginseng Research
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• v.46 no.5
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• pp.683-689
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• 2022

Background: Since ginsenosides exert an anti-thrombotic activity, blood flow-improving effects of DK-MGAR101, an extract of mountain ginseng adventitious roots (MGAR) containing various ginsenosides, were investigated in comparison with an extract of Korean Red Ginseng (ERG). Methods: In Sprague-Dawley rats orally administered with DK-MGAR101 or ERG, oxidative carotid arterial thrombosis was induced with FeCl₃ (35%), and their blood flow and occlusion time were measured. To elucidate underlying mechanisms, the cytoprotective activities on rat aortic endothelial cells (RAOECs) exposed to hydrogen peroxide (H₂O₂) were confirmed. In addition, the inhibitory activities of DK-MGAR101 and ERG on agonist-induced platelet aggregation, thromboxane B₂ production, and ATP granule release from stimulated platelets as well as blood coagulation were analyzed. Results: DK-MGAR101 containing high concentrations of Rb1, Rg1, Rg3, Rg5, and Rk1 ginsenosides (55.07 mg/g) was more effective than ERG (ginsenosides 8.45 mg/g) in protecting RAOECs against H₂O₂ cytotoxicity. DK-MGAR101 was superior to ERG not only in suppressing platelet aggregation, thromboxane B₂ production, and granule release, but also in delaying blood coagulation, FeCl₃-induced arterial occlusion, and thrombus formation. Conclusions: The results indicate that DK-MGAR101 prevents blood vessel occlusion by suppressing platelet aggregation, thrombosis, and blood coagulation, in addition to endothelial cell injury.

• Korean Journal of Pharmacognosy
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• v.47 no.1
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• pp.73-78
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• 2016

The purpose of this study is to develop a new preparation process of ginseng (Panax ginseng) flower buds extracts featuring high concentration of ginsenosides Rg2, Rg3, Rg5, F4 and Rh1, red ginseng special components. Chemical transformation from ginseng saponin glycosides to prosapogenin was analyzed by the HPLC. Extracts of ginseng flower buds were processed under several treatment conditions of ultrasonication (at $100^{\circ}C$). The results showed that the quantity of ginsenoside Rg6 increased by over 8.8% at the 16 hours of ultrasonication. Ginseng flower buds ethanol extract compared with other process times. The result of UGF-16 indicates that the ultrasonication processed ginseng flower buds extracts (at $100^{\circ}C$) treated for 16 hours produced the highest amount of ginsenoside F4 (8.833%), Rg3 (2.230%), Rg5 (2.339%) and Rg2 (1.002%).

• Preventive Nutrition and Food Science
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• v.15 no.2
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• pp.105-112
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• 2010

Thirty-four strains of Lactobacillus species were isolated from soil and eight of these isolates (M1-4 and P1-4) were capable of growing on red ginseng agar. The M1 and P2 strains were determined to be L. plantarum and other strains (M2, M3, M4, P1, P3 and P4) were determined to be L. brevis. Fermentation of red ginseng extract (RGE) with strains M1, M2, P2 and P4 resulted in a low level of total carbohydrate content (174.3, 170.0, 158.8 and 164.8 mg/mL, respectively). RGE fermented by M3 showed a higher level of uronic acid than the control. The polyphenol levels in RGE fermented by M1, P1 and P2 (964.9, 941.7 and $965.3\;{\mu}g/mL$, respectively) were higher than the control ($936.8\;{\mu}g/mL$). Total saponin contents in fermented RGE (except M1) were higher than the control. RGE fermented by M2 and M3 had the highest levels of total ginsenosides (31.7 and 32.7 mg/mL, respectively). The levels of the ginsenoside Rg3 increased from 2.6 mg/mL (control) to 3.0 mg/mL (M2) or 3.1 mg/mL (M3). RGE fermented by M2 and M3 also had the highest levels of Rg5+Rk1 (7.7 and 8.3 mg/mL, respectively). Metabolite contents of ginsenoside (sum of CK, Rh1, Rg5, Rk1, Rg3 and Rg2) of M2 (13.0 mg/mL) and M3 (13.9 mg/mL) were also at a high level among the fermented RGE. Protopanaxadiol and protopanaxatriol content of ginsenoside of M2 (10.9 and 5.4 mg/mL, respectively) and M3 (11.0 and 5.7 mg/mL, respectively) were at higher levels than other fermented RGE.

• Journal of Ginseng Research
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• v.32 no.3
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• pp.220-225
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• 2008

The present investigation was performed to evaluate the homeostatic regulation of sleep architecture by the ethanol extract of Korea red ginseng (KRG), since the available data were often controversial. In addition, it was also interested in whether the sleep-wake stages were differently affected by low and high doses of KRG. Each adult Wistar male rat was implanted with a transmitter for recording EEG and activity via telemetry. After one week of surgery, polygraphic signs of undisturbed sleep-wake activities were recorded for 12 h (between 9:00 am and 9:00 pm) after KRG administration. KRG (10 and 100 mg/kg) increased non-rapid eye movement (NREM) sleep as well as total sleep. The total percentages of wakefulness were decreased comparably. KRG (10 mg/kg) decreased the power density of the ${\delta}-wave$ (0.75-4.5 Hz) and increased ${\alpha}-wave$ (8.0-13.0 Hz) in the NREM and rapid eye movement (REM) sleep. KRG also decreased ${\delta}-wave$ power density in wake time. However, KRG (100 mg/kg) increased ${\delta}-wave$ and decreased ${\theta}-wave$ (5.0-9.0 Hz) power density in wake time, while showed little effect on the power density in NREM and REM sleep. In conclusion, low and high doses of KRG increase spontaneous sleep and NREM sleep and differently regulate the EEG spectra in REM and NREM sleep.

• Journal of Ginseng Research
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• v.23 no.4
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• pp.217-221
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• 1999

We have isolated an antithrombin active polysaccharide in red ginseng by procedures comprising three major steps involving alkaline extraction, anion exchange and gel permeation chromatography. Active polysaccharide behaved as a single band on cellulose acetate membrane electrophoresis. The average molecular mass was estimated to be about 177 kDa by gel filtration. This polysaccharide was found to be an acidic heteropolysaccharide that contains uronic acid moiety $(40.2\%)$, sulfate group $(9.2\%)$ and protein $(1.5\%)$ in addition to neutral sugar consisted of rhamnose, mannose, galactose, arabinose, glucose, fucose and xylose in a molar ratio of 1.00 : 0.88 : 0.86 : 0.78: 0.70 : 0.33 : 0.22. This polysaccharide inhibited blood coagulation via the intrinsic pathway like heparin in a dose-dependent manner. The clotting of fibrinogen by thrombin was also mitigated by the presence of this polysaccharide.

• Journal of Ginseng Research
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• v.42 no.4
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• pp.436-446
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• 2018

Background: The potential therapeutic values of Korean Red Ginseng extract (KRGE) in autoimmune disorders of nervous system have not been fully investigated. Methods: We used an acute experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis animal model of multiple sclerosis and determined the effects and mechanism of KRGE on spinal myelination. Results: Pretreatment with KRGE (100 mg/kg, orally) for 10 days before immunization with myelin basic protein $(MBP)_{68-82}$ peptide exerted a protective effect against demyelination in the spinal cord, with inhibited recruitment and activation of immune cells including microglia, decreased mRNA expression of detrimental inflammatory mediators (interleukin-6, interferon-${\gamma}$, and cyclooxygenase-2), but increased mRNA expression of protective inflammatory mediators (insulin-like growth factor ${\beta}1$, transforming growth factor ${\beta}$, and vascular endothelial growth factor-1). These results were associated with significant downregulation of p38 mitogen-activated protein kinase and nuclear factor-${\kappa}B$ signaling pathways in microglia/macrophages, T cells, and astrocytes. Conclusion: Our findings suggest that KRGE alleviates spinal demyelination in acute experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis through inhibiting the activation of the p38 mitogen-activated protein kinase/nuclear factor-${\kappa}B$ signaling pathway. Therefore, KRGE might be used as a new therapeutic for autoimmune disorders such as multiple sclerosis, although further investigation is needed.

• Journal of Ginseng Research
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• v.46 no.1
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• pp.147-155
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• 2022

Background: Methamphetamine (METH) is the most widely used psychostimulant and has been known to exhibit reinforcing effects even after long abstinence. We showed the inhibitory effect of Korean Red Ginseng extract (RGE) on METH-induced addictive behaviors in animal models mimicking the human drug-use pattern. Methods: We first investigated the effect of RGE on the acquisition of METH-induced dependence using self-administration and conditioned place preference (CPP) tests. Additionally, further experiments such as METH-induced motivational behavior and seeking behavior were conducted. To study the underlying mechanism, dopamine receptor, dopamine transporter, and N-methyl-D-aspartate receptor were assessed through Western blot analysis. Results: Treatment with RGE significantly reduced METH-induced self-administration on a fixed-ratio 1 schedule of reinforcement. It could be also decreased a progressive ratio schedule, and inhibited METH-primed reinstatement. In CPP, RGE significantly prevented the development of METH-induced CPP. Moreover, RGE not only shortened the withdrawal period clearly, but also prevented the reinstatement of CPP. RGE treatment also reversed METH-induced overexpression of dopamine transporter, dopamine receptor D1, and NMDA receptor in the nucleus accumbens. Conclusion: Our findings reflect that RGE has therapeutic potential to suppress METH-induced addictive behaviors by regulating dopaminergic and NMDAergic system.

• Journal of Ginseng Research
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• v.46 no.3
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• pp.408-417
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• 2022

Background: Korean Red Ginseng extract (KRGE) has been used as a health supplement and herbal medicine. Astrocytes are one of the key cells in the central nervous system (CNS) and have bioenergetic potential as they stimulate mitochondrial biogenesis. They play a critical role in connecting the brain vasculature and nerves in the CNS. Methods: Brain samples from KRGE-administered mice were tested using immunohistochemistry. Treatment of human brain astrocytes with KRGE was subjected to assays such as proliferation, cytotoxicity, Mitotracker, ATP production, and O₂ consumption rate as well as western blotting to demonstrate the expression of proteins related to mitochondria functions. The expression of hypoxia-inducible factor-1α (HIF-1α) was diminished utilizing siRNA transfection. Results: Brain samples from KRGE-administered mice harbored an increased number of GFAP-expressing astrocytes. KRGE triggered the proliferation of astrocytes in vitro. Enhanced mitochondrial biogenesis induced by KRGE was detected using Mitotracker staining, ATP production, and O₂ consumption rate assays. The expression of proteins related to mitochondrial electron transport was increased in KRGE-treated astrocytes. These effects were blocked by HIF-1α knockdown. The factors secreted from KRGE-treated astrocytes were determined, revealing the expression of various cytokines and growth factors, especially those related to angiogenesis and neurogenesis. KRGE-treated astrocyte conditioned media enhanced the differentiation of adult neural stem cells into mature neurons, increasing the migration of endothelial cells, and these effects were reduced in the background of HIF-1α knockdown. Conclusion: Our findings suggest that KRGE exhibits prophylactic potential by stimulating astrocyte mitochondrial biogenesis through HIF-1α, resulting in improved neurovascular function.

• Journal of Ginseng Research
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• v.47 no.4
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• pp.583-592
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• 2023

Background: Alcohol is one of the most commonly used psychoactive drugs. Due to its addictive characteristics, many people struggle with the side effects of alcohol. Korean Red Ginseng (KRG) is a traditional herbal medicine that is widely used to treat various health problems. However, the effects and mechanisms of KRG in alcohol-induced responses remain unclear. Therefore, the purpose of this study was to investigate the effects of KRG in alcohol-induced responses. Methods: We investigated two aspects: alcohol-induced addictive responses and spatial working memory impairments. To determine the effects of KRG in alcohol-induced addictive responses, we performed conditioned place preference tests and withdrawal symptom observations. To assess the effects of KRG in alcohol-induced spatial working memory impairment, Y-maze, Barnes maze, and novel object recognition tests were performed using mice after repeated alcohol and KRG exposure. To investigate the potential mechanism of KRG activity, gas chromatography-mass spectrometry and western blot analysis were performed. Results: KRG-treated mice showed dose-dependent restoration of impaired spatial working memory following repeated alcohol exposure. Furthermore, withdrawal symptoms to alcohol were reduced in mice treated with KRG and alcohol. The PKA-CREB signaling pathway was activated after alcohol administration, which was reduced by KRG. However, the levels of inflammatory cytokines were increased by alcohol and decreased by KRG. Conclusion: Taken together, KRG may alleviate alcohol-induced spatial working memory impairments and addictive responses through anti-neuroinflammatory activity rather than through the PKA-CREB signaling pathway.

• Journal of Ginseng Research
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• v.48 no.2
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• pp.181-189
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• 2024

Background: Cigarette smoke is generally accepted as a major contributor to chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD), which is characterized by emphysematous lesions. In this study, we investigated the protective effects of Korean Red Ginseng (KRG) against cigarette smoke condensate (CSC)-induced emphysema. Methods: Mice were instilled with 50 mg/kg of CSC intranasally once a week for 4 weeks, KRG was administered to the mice once daily for 4 weeks at doses of 100 or 300 mg/kg, and dexamethasone (DEX, positive control) was administered to the mice once daily for 2 weeks at 3 mg/kg. Results: KRG markedly decreased the macrophage population in bronchoalveolar lavage fluid and reduced emphysematous lesions in the lung tissues. KRG suppressed CSC-induced apoptosis as revealed by terminal deoxynucleotidyl transferase deoxyuridine triphosphate nick-end labeling staining and Caspase 3 immunohistochemistry. Additionally, KRG effectively inhibited CSC-mediated activation of Bcl-2-associated X protein/Caspase 3 signaling, followed by the induction of cell survival signaling, including vascular endothelial growth factor/phosphoinositide 3-kinase/protein kinase B in vivo and in vitro. The DEX group also showed similar improved results in vivo and in vitro. Conclusion: Taken together, KRG effectively inhibits macrophage-mediated emphysema induced by CSC exposure, possibly via the suppression of pro-apoptotic signaling, which results in cell survival pathway activation. These findings suggest that KRG has therapeutic potential for the prevention of emphysema in COPD patients.