• Journal of Microbiology and Biotechnology
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• v.29 no.2
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• pp.222-229
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• 2019

Korean ginseng (Panax ginseng Meyer) was processed by drying, steaming, or puffing, and the effects of these processes on the ginsenoside profile were investigated. The main root of 4-year-old raw Korean ginseng was dried to produce white ginseng. Steaming, followed by drying, was employed to produce red or black ginseng. In addition, these three varieties of processed ginseng were puffed using a rotational puffing gun. Puffed ginseng showed significantly higher extraction yields of ginsenosides (49.87-58.60 g solid extract/100 g of sample) and crude saponin content (59.40-63.87 mg saponin/g of dried ginseng) than non-puffed ginseng, respectively. Moreover, puffing effectively transformed the major ginsenosides (Rb1, Rb2, Rc, Rd, Re, and Rg1) of ginseng into minor ones (F2, Rg3, Rk1, and Rg5), comparable to the steaming process effect on the levels of the transformed ginsenosides. However, steaming takes much longer (4 to 36 days) than puffing (less than 30 min) for ginsenoside transformation. Consequently, puffing may be an effective and economical technique for enhancing the extraction yield and levels of minor ginsenosides responsible for the major biological activities of ginseng.

• Journal of Ginseng Research
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• v.45 no.1
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• pp.163-175
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• 2021

Background: Ginsenosides, which have strong biological activities, can be divided into polar or less-polar ginsenosides. Methods: This study evaluated the phytochemical diversity of the saponins in Panax ginseng (PG) root, American ginseng (AG) root, and Panax notoginseng (NG) root; the stem-leaves from Panax ginseng (SPG) root, American ginseng (SAG) root, and Panax notoginseng (SNG) root as well as the saponins obtained following heating and acidification [transformed Panax ginseng (TPG), transformed American ginseng (TAG), transformed Panax notoginseng (TNG), transformed stem-leaves from Panax ginseng (TSPG), transformed stem-leaves from American ginseng (TSAG), and transformed stem-leaves from Panax notoginseng (TSNG)]. The diversity was determined through the simultaneous quantification of the 16 major ginsenosides. Results: The content of ginsenosides in NG was found to be higher than those in AG and PG, and the content in SPG was greater than those in SNG and SAG. After transformation, the contents of polar ginsenosides in the raw saponins decreased, and contents of less-polar compounds increased. TNG had the highest levels of ginsenosides, which is consistent with the transformation of ginseng root. The contents of saponins in the stem-leaves were higher than those in the roots. The transformation rate of SNG was higher than those of the other samples, and the loss ratios of total ginsenosides from NG (6%) and SNG (4%) were the lowest among the tested materials. In addition to the conversion temperature, time, and pH, the crude protein content also affects the conversion to rare saponins. The proteins in Panax notoginseng allowed the highest conversion rate. Conclusion: Thus, the industrial preparation of less-polar ginsenosides from SNG is more efficient and cheaper.

• The Korea Journal of Herbology
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• v.30 no.5
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• pp.59-65
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• 2015

Objectives : Fermentation of herbs has been known to be helpful in improving the immune systems and protecting body against disease. The present study was conducted to evaluate anti-inflammatory effects of the fermentation extracts (FE) consisting of soybean, red ginseng andCitrus UnshiuPeel in lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-activated Raw264.7 cells.Methods : FE were prepared by the fermentation withBacillus Subtilisand then by extraction with ethanol (95%; prepared by the fermentation process). Cell viability was measured by MTT assay. Nitric oxide (NO) production was measured in culture media by Griess assay. The expression of nuclear factor (NF)-κB and inhibitory kappa B alpha (IκBα) was determined by Western blot.Results : LPS-induced production of NO and PGE₂was dose-dependently decreased by the treatment of FE in Raw264.7 cells. These suppressive effects of FE on NO and PGE₂production were related to the inhibition of inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS) and cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2) expression. FE inhibited LPS-induced production of pro-inflammatory cytokines, TNF-α, IL-6, and IL-1βin a dose-dependent manner. Furthermore, FE inhibited the NF-κB signaling pathway through the prevention of LPS-induced degradation of IκBαin cytosol and the nuclear translocation of NF-κB.Conclusions : These findings suggest that FE could have anti-inflammatory effects on LPS-induced inflammatory responses in macrophages.

• Journal of Physiology & Pathology in Korean Medicine
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• v.27 no.6
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• pp.738-744
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• 2013

The purpose of this study is to investigate effects of White Ginseng-Ejung-tang water extract (EJ) on production of various cytokines such as interleukin (IL)-2, IL-5, IL-6, IL-10, IL-12p70, macrophage inflammatory protein (MIP)-2, vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF), keratinocyte-derived chemokine(KC), tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-${\alpha}$, and granulocyte macrophage colony-stimulating factor (GM-CSF) in RAW 264.7 mouse macrophages stimulated by lipopolysaccharide (LPS). Levels of cytokines were measured by High-throughput multiplex bead array cytokine assay based on xMAP (multi-analyte profiling beads) technology. EJ significantly decreased levels of IL-2, IL-12p70, IL-5, MIP-2 for 24 h incubation at the concentrations of 25, 50, and 100 ${\mu}g/mL$ in LPS-induced RAW 264.7 (P < 0.05). EJ significantly decreased levels of IL-6 at the concentrations of 50 and 100 ${\mu}g/mL$ (P < 0.05). EJ significantly decreased levels of IL-10 and VEGF at the concentrations of 25 and 100 ${\mu}g/mL$ (P < 0.05). EJ significantly decreased levels of KC at the concentrations of 100 ${\mu}g/mL$ (P < 0.05). EJ did not show any significant effect on TNF-${\alpha}$ and GM-CSF production. These results suggest that EJ has anti-inflammtory property related with its inhibition of IL-2, IL-5, IL-6, IL-10, IL-12p70, MIP-2, VEGF, and KC production in LPS-induced macrophages.

• Journal of Ginseng Research
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• v.43 no.1
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• pp.154-160
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• 2019

Background: Compound K (CK) is an active metabolite of ginseng saponin, ginsenoside Rb1, that has been shown to have ameliorative properties in various diseases. However, its role in inflammation and the underlying mechanisms are poorly understood. In this report, the antiinflammatory role of CK was investigated in macrophage-like cells. Methods: The CK-mediated antiinflammatory mechanism was explored in RAW264.7 and HEK293 cells that were activated by lipopolysaccharide (LPS) or exhibited overexpression of known activation proteins. The mRNA levels of inflammatory genes and the activation levels of target proteins were identified by quantitative and semiquantitative reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction and Western blot analysis. Results: CK significantly inhibited the mRNA expression of inducible nitric oxide synthase and tumor necrosis factor-${\alpha}$ and morphological changes in LPS-activated RAW264.7 cells under noncytotoxic concentrations. CK downregulated the phosphorylation of AKT1, but not AKT2, in LPS-activated RAW264.7 cells. Similarly, CK reduced the AKT1 overexpression-induced expression of aldehyde oxidase 1, interleukin-$1{\beta}$, interferon-${\beta}$, and tumor necrosis factor-${\alpha}$ in a dose-dependent manner. Conclusion: Our results suggest that CK plays an antiinflammatory role during macrophage-mediated inflammatory actions by specifically targeting the AKT1-mediated signaling pathway.

• Journal of Ginseng Research
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• v.29 no.2
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• pp.107-112
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• 2005

The objective of this study was to determine effects of the die temperature(100 and $120^{\circ}C$) and screw speed(200 and 300 rpm) on the characteristics of extruded raw ginseng such as crude saponin, ginsenosides, maltol and the color of powder. Crude saponin content increased after extrusion-cooking. Ginsenoside $Rg_1\;and\;Rg_2$ that contained in red ginseng increased from 0.2275 mg/g to 0.2835 mg/g$(Rg_l)$ and 0.1164 mg/g to 0.2230 mg/g$(Rg_2)$ with the increase in die temperature from 100 to $120^{\circ}C$, which increased with the decrease in screw speed from 300 to 200 rpm. Maltol, specific component in red ginseng was detected in extruded ginseng. Total sugar content was not changed by extrusion process, however reducing sugar decreased with the increase in die temperature from 100 to $120^{\circ}C$. In conclusion extrusion process can be applied to red ginseng manufacturing by controling extrusion process variables such as extrusion temperature and screw speed.

• Journal of Ginseng Research
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• v.45 no.6
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• pp.631-641
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• 2021

Background: Main bioactive constituents and pharmacological functions of ripened red ginseng berry (Panax ginseng Meyer) have been frequently reported. Yet, the research gap targeting the beneficial activities of transformed green ginseng berries has not reported elsewhere. Methods: Ginsenosides of new green berry cultivar K-1 (GK-1) were identified by HPLC-QTOF/MS. Ginsenosides bioconversion in GK-1 by bgp1 enzyme was confirmed with HPLC and TLC. Then, mechanisms of GK-1 and β-glucosidase (bgp1) biotransformed GK-1 (BGK-1) were determined by Quantitative Reverse Transcription-Polymerase Chain Reaction and Western blot. Results: GK-1 possesses highest ginsenosides especially ginsenoside-Re amongst seven ginseng cultivars including (Chunpoong, Huangsuk, Kumpoong, K-1, Honkaejong, Gopoong, and Yunpoong). Ginseng root's biomass is not affected with the harvest of GK-1 at 3 weeks after flowering period. Then, Re is bioconverted into a promising pharmaceutical effect of Rg2 via bgp1. According to the results of cell assays, BGK-1 shows decrease of tyrosinase and melanin content in α-melanocyte-stimulating hormone challenged-murine melanoma B16 cells. BGK-1 which is comparatively more effective than GK-1 extract shows significant suppression of the nuclear factor (NF)-κB activation and inflammatory target genes, in LPS-stimulated RAW 264.7 cells. Conclusion: These results reported effective whitening and anti-inflammatory of BGK-1 as compared to GK-1.

• Korean Journal of Pharmacognosy
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• v.45 no.2
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• pp.107-112
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• 2014

The purpose of this study is to develop a new preparation process of American ginseng (Panax quinquefolium) extract featuring high concentration of ginsenoside $Rg_3$, $Rg_5$, and $Rk_1$, Red ginseng special components. Chemical transformation from ginseng saponin glycosides to prosapogenin was analyzed by the HPLC. Extracts of American ginseng were processed under several treatment conditions of microwave and vinegar (about 14% acidity). The results showed that the quantity of ginsenoside $Rg_3$ increased by over 0.9% at the 20 minutes of the pH 2~4 vinegar and microwave American ginseng ethanol extract compared with other process times. The result of MAG-20 indicates that the American ginseng microwave and vinegar-processed American ginseng extracts (about 14% acidity) treated for 20 minutes produced the highest amount of ginsenoside $Rg_3$ (0.969%), $Rg_5$ (1.071%), and $Rk_1$ (0.247%). Besides, MAG-15 indicates that the microwave - and vinegar-processed American ginseng extracts (about 14% acidity) treated for 15 minutes produced the highest amount of ginsenoside $Rg_3$ (0.772%), $Rg_5$ (1.330%), and $Rk_1$ (0.386%). This indicates that American ginseng treated with microwave and vinegar had the quantity of the ginsenoside $Rg_3$ over 32 times the amount of the ginsenoside $Rg_3$ (which was not found in raw and American ginsengs) in the average commercial Red ginseng.

• Journal of Ginseng Research
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• v.1 no.1
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• pp.79-88
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• 1976

A determinatien of the saponins in ginseng tea and extract was carried out by using the quantitative TLC autodetector equipped with a hydrogen flame ionization detector. In order to apply to the Quality central of the ginseng tea and extract. the optimum condition and recovery percentage for the quantitative determination of saponins in these products duo studied. The results obtained were as follows: The method was adequate to estimate whether the ginseng extract used for the Products and She raw ginseng extract were the same quality or net. Most of the individual peak area was increased with the concentration of the total saponin. But some of the peak areas were net increased quantitatively in the ease of the sample containing high concentration ginseng extract. To deternine the saponins in ginseng tea correctly high volume low concentration was better than the low volume high concentration. Optimum concentration of ginseng extract in sample to determine the individual saponins was in the range of 0.5∼1.5g. The recovery percentage of the total saponin was 99.5% on the average.

• Journal of Ginseng Research
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• v.29 no.2
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• pp.80-85
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• 2005

Antiallergic and antipsoriatic effects of korean Red Ginseng (KRG, steamed root of panax ginseng C.A. Meyer, Family Araliaceae) were measured. Orally administered KRG water extract potently inhibited passive cutaneous anaphylaxis (PCA). KRG water extract also showed the potent inhibition in oxazolone-induced mouse dermatitis, and suppressed mouse ear swelling by $39\%$ at 16 days at a dose of $0.1\%$. KRG water extract reduced the levels of mRNA of cyclooxygenase (COX)-2, $IL-1\beta$, $TNF-\alpha$ and $INF-\gamma$ increased in oxazolone-applied mouse ears, however, did not inhibit that of IL-4. KRG water extract also inhibited iNOS and COX-2 mRNA expression level of RAW264.7 cell induced by lipopolysaccharide. Based on these findings, we suggest that KRG can improve atopic and contact dermatitis by the regulation of $ IL-1\beta$ and $TNF-\alpha$ produced by macrophage cells and $interferon-\gamma$ produced by Th1 cells.