• Journal of the Korean association of regional geographers
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• v.4 no.2
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• pp.49-64
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• 1998

Bing-gye valley(Kyongbuk Province, South Korea) is well known as a tourist attraction because of its meteorologic characteristics that show subzero temperature during midsummer. Also, there are some interesting geomorphic features in the valley area. Therefore, the valley is worth researching in geomorphology field. The aim of this paper is to achieve two purposes. These are to clarify geomorphic features on talus within Bing-gye valley area, and to infer the origin of Bing-gye valley. The main results are summarized as follows. 1) The formation of Bing-gye valley It would be possible to infer the following two ideas regarding the formation of Bing-gye valley. One is that the valley was formed by differential erosion of stream along fault line, and the other is that the rate of upheaval comparatively exceeded the rate of stream erosion. Especially, the latter may be associated with the fact that the width of the valley is much narrow. Judging that the fact the width of the valley is much narrow, compared with one of its upper or lower valley, it is inferred that Bing-gye valley is transverse valley. 2) The geomorphic features of talus (1) Pattern It seems to be true that the removal of matrix(finer materials) by the running water beneath the surface can result in partly collapse hollows. Taluses are tongue-shaped or cone-shaped in appearance. They are $120{\sim}200m$ in length, $30{\sim}40m$ in maximum width. and $32{\sim}33^{\circ}$ in mean slope gradient. The component blocks are mostly homogeneous in size and shape(angular), which reflect highly jointed free face produced by frost action under periglacial environment. (2) Origin On the basis of previous studies, the type of the talus is classified into rock fall talus. When considered in conjunction with the degrees of both weathering of blocks and hardness of blocks, it can be explained that the talus was formed under periglacial environment in pleistocene time. (3) The inner structure of block accumulation I recognize a three-layered structure in the talus as follows: (a) superficial layer; debris with openwork texture at the surface, 1.3m thick. (b) intermediate layer: small debris(about 5cm in diameter) with fine matrix(including humic soil), 70cm thick. (c) basal layer: over 2m beneath surface, almost pure soil horizon without debris (4) The stage of landform development Most of the blocks are now covered with lichen, and/or a mantle of weathering. It is believed that downslope movement by talus creep well explains the formation of concave slope of the talus. There is no evidence of present motion in the deposit. Judging from above-mentioned facts, the talus of this study area appears to be inactive and fossil landform.

• Korean Journal of Heritage: History & Science
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• v.54 no.2
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• pp.38-55
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• 2021

Cherwon Castle is located in Pungcheonwon, Cherwon, in the center of the Korean Peninsula. Currently, it is split across the Demilitarized Zone (DMZ) between the two Koreas. It attracts attention as a symbol of inter-Korean reconciliation and as cultural heritage that serves as data in making important policy decisions on the DMZ. Despite its importance, however, there has not been sufficient investigation and research done on Cherwon Castle. This is due to the difficulty involved in investigation and research and is caused by the site's inaccessibility. As a solution, the current investigative methods in satellite and aerial archeology can be applied to interpret and analyze the structure of Cherwon Castle and the features of its inner space zoning. Cherwon Castle was built on the five flat hills that begin in the northern mountainous hills and stretch to the southwest. The inner and outer walls were built mainly on the hilly ridges, and the palace wall was built surrounding a flat site that was created on the middle hill. For each wall, the sites of the old gates, which were erected in various directions , have been identified. They seem to have been built to fit the direction of buildings in the castle and the features of the terrain. The castle was built in a diamond shape. The old sites of the palace and related buildings and landforms related to water drainage were identified. It was verified that the roads and the gates were built to run from east to west in the palace. In the spaces of the palace and the inner castle, flat sites were created to fit different landforms, and building sites were arranged there. Moreover, the contour of a reservoir that is believed to be the old site of a pond has been found; it lies on the vertical extension of the center line that connects the palace and the inner castle. Between the inner castle and the outer castle, few vestiges of old buildings were found, although many flat sites were discovered. Structurally, Cherwon Castle is rotated about nine degrees to the northeast, forming a planar rectangle. The planar structure derives from the castle design that mimics the hilly landform, and the bending of the southwestern wall also attests to the intention of the architects to avoid the wetland. For now, it is impossible to clearly describe the functions and characters of the building sites inside the castle. However, it is believed that the inner castle was marked out for space for the palace and government offices, while the space between the outer and inner castle was reserved as the living space for ordinary people. The presence of the hilly landform diminishes the possibility that a bangri (grid) zoning system existed. For some of the landforms, orderly zoning cannot be ruled out, as flat areas are commonly seen. As surveys have yet to be conducted on the different castles, the time when the walls were built and how they were constructed cannot be known. Still, the claim to that the castle construction and the structuring of inner spaces were inspired by the surrounding landforms is quite compelling.

• Korean Journal of Environment and Ecology
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• v.37 no.1
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• pp.1-12
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• 2023

We analyzed the distribution area of debris slopes in Mudeungsan (Mt. Mudeung) National Park by comparing aerial photos of the past (1966) and the present (2017) and identified the vegetation characteristics that affect the change in the area of the debris slopes by investigating the vegetation status of the debris slopes and the surrounding areas. The area of debris slopes in Mt. Mudeung appears to have been reduced to a quarter of what it used to be. Debris slopes here have decreased at an average rate of 2.3 ha/yr over 51 years by vegetation covers. Notably, most of the small-area debris slopes in the low-inclination slopes disappeared due to active vegetation coverage. However, there are still west-facing, south-west-facing, south-facing, and large-area debris slopes remaining because the sun's radiant heat rapidly raises the surface temperature of rock blocks and dries moisture, making tree growth unfavorable. Because of these locational characteristics, the small-scale vegetation in the middle of Deoksan Stony Slope, which is the broadest area, showed distinct characteristics from the adjacent forest areas. Sunny places and tree species with excellent drying resistance were observed frequently in Deoksan Stony Slope. However, tree species with high hygropreference that grow well in valleys with good soil conditions also prevailed. In some of these places, the soil layer has been well developed due to the accumulation of fine materials and organic matter between the crevices of the rock blocks, which is likely to have provided favorable conditions for such tree species to settle and grow. At the top of Mt. Mudeung, on the other hand, the forest covered the debris slopes, where Mongolian oaks (Quercus mongolica) and royal azaleas (Rhododendron schlippenbachii), which typically grow in the highlands, prevailed. This area was considered favorable for the development of vegetation for the highlands because the density of rock blocks was lower than in Deoksan Stony Slope, and the soil was exposed. Moreover, ash trees (Fraxinus rhynchophylla) and Korean maple trees (Acer pseudosieboldianum) that commonly appear in the valley areas were dominant here. It is probably due to the increased moisture content in the soil, which resulted from creating a depressive landform with a concave shape that is easy to collect rainwater as rock blocks in some areas fell and piled up in the lower region. In conclusion, the area, density of the rock blocks, and distribution pattern of rock block slopes would have affected the vegetation development and species composition in the debris slope landform.

• Journal of the Korean Institute of Landscape Architecture
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• v.41 no.6
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• pp.1-19
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• 2013

This study tries to review 'Sakuteiki(作庭記)', the Book of Garden Making, compiled at the end of the 11th Century during the Heian Period of Japan, from the East-Asian perspective. 'Sakuteiki' is a Garden Theory Book, the oldest in the world as well as in Asia, and it contains the traditional knowledge of Japanese ancient garden culture, which originated from the continent(Korea and China). Traditional knowledge related to East-Asian garden culture reviewed in this paper is "Fungsu Theory"(風水, Asian traditional ecology: Fengshui in Chinese; Fusui in Japanese), stemmed from the culture to seek sound and blessed places to live in. Viewed from modern landscape architecture, the Fungsu Theory corresponds to ecology(science). The Fungsu Theory was established around the Han Dynasty of China together with the Yinyangwuxing(陰陽五行) Theory and widely used for making human residences including gardens. It was transmitted to Japan via Korea as well as through direct transaction between Japan and China. This study reinterprets garden design principles represented in Sakuteiki, which were selected in 5 key words according to the Fungsu Theory. The 5 key words for the Fungsu Theory are "the place in harmony of four guardian gods(四神相應地)", "planting trees in the four cardinal directions", "flow of Chi(氣)", "curved line and asymmetry", and "mountain is the king, water is the people". Garden design principles of "the place in harmony of four guardian gods(四神相應地)" and "planting trees in the four cardinal directions" are corresponding to "Myeongdang-ron(明堂論, Theory of propitious site)". The place in harmony of four guardian gods mentioned in Sakuteiki is a landform surrounded by the flow of water to the east, the great path to the west, the pond to the south, and the hill to the north. And the Theory originated from Zhaijing(宅經, Classic of dwelling Sites) of China. According to this principle, the city was planned and as a miniature model, the residence of the aristocrat during the Heian period was made. At the residence the location of the garden surrounded by the four gods(the flow of water, the great path, the pond, and the hill) is the Myeongdang(明堂, the propitious site: Mingtang in Chinese; Meido in Japanese). Sakuteiki explains how to substitute for the four gods by planting trees in the four cardinal directions when they were not given by nature. This way of planting originated from Zhaijing(宅經) and also goes back to Qiminyaoshu (齊民要術), compiled in the 6th Century of China. In this way of planting, the number of trees suggested in Sakuteiki is related to Hetu(河圖) and Luoshu(洛書), which are iconography of Yi(易), the philosophy of change, in ancient China. Such way of planting corresponds to that of Yongdoseo(龍圖墅, the villa based on the principle of Hetu) presented in Sanrimgyeongje (山林經濟), an encyclopedia on agriculture and living in the 17th Century of Korea. And garden design principles of "the flow of Chi(氣)", "curved line and asymmetry" is connected to "Saenggi Theory(生氣論, Theory of vitality)". Sakuteiki explains the right flow of Chi(氣) through the proper flow and the reverse flow of the garden stream and also suggests the curved line of the garden stream, asymmetric arrangement of bridges and stones in the garden, and indented shape of pond edges, which are ways of accumulating Chi(氣) and therefore lead to "Saenggi Theory" of the Fungsu Theory. The last design principle, "mountain is the king, water is the people", is related to "Hyeongguk Theory(形局論, Theory of form)" of the Fungsu Theory. Sakuteiki explains the meaning of garden through a metaphor, which views mountain as king, water as the people, and stones as king's retainers. It compares the situation in which the king governs the people with the help of his retainers to the ecological phenomena in which mountain(earth) controls water with the help of stones. This principle befits "Hyeongguk Theory(形局論, Theory of form)" of the Fungsu Theory which explains landform on the analogy of social systems, people, animals and things. As above, major garden design principles represented in Sakuteiki can be interpreted in the context of the Fungsu Theory, the traditional knowledge system in East Asia. Therefore, we can find the significance of Sakuteiki in that the wisdom of ancient garden culture in East-Asia was integrated in it, although it described the knowhow of a specific garden style in a specific period of Japan.

• Journal of the Korean association of regional geographers
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• v.9 no.2
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• pp.203-216
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• 2003

The process of constructing coastal digital elevation model(DEM), for the 3 dimensional analysis, is composed by abstracting land layers for land elevation and water depth, reprojecting UTM, relocating geographical grid, and interpolating works. The geomorphic set of shallow sea, including tidal current, tidal zone deposition, and water depth distribution, was analyzed by eye search of Landsat TM image, masking of land zone, band combination and regression analysis. Some horizontal differences, between combined DEM and surveyed data of shallow sea, was corrected for analysis. Analyzed geomorphic elements are stream channel, alluvial fan, coastal terrace, tidal current. and shallow sea bank. Results of analysis present that transported fluvial materials influence tidal sedimentation, especially from Gahwacheon river, for the role of artificial draining flooding waters from Jinyang Reservoir, almost in the summer season. In the coastal area with less tidal current, more fine materials are deposited. The influence of currental deposition are higher on small pockets with west coast of well developed terraces. The lower skirt of alluvial fans developed into the tidal zone of shallow sea. Small pocket type bays are closed by coastal current, and less influenced from tidal deposition. The bank of Jinju Bay are developed originally from submerging of remnant erosional mountain ranges, and play on the role of trapping fine materials.

• Journal of Korea Water Resources Association
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• v.45 no.2
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• pp.127-136
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• 2012

River is able to change by various environmental factors. In order to conduct river restoration design, it is necessary to evaluate the stable channel through the analysis of past and present river channels. River evaluation requires various data, such as geometry, hydraulic and hydrology, but there is a lot of difficulty to understand topographical information of river change on time and space due to a lack of past data by domestic conditions. This study was analyzed abandoned channel formation, changes in the vertical-section and cross-section length of rivers, and micro-landform changes etc using an image analysis technique. Purpose of this research is to evaluates the stable channel through a river channel morphology change from past and present river channels image. Mangyoung river was conducted artificial river maintenance through straight channel consolidation form 1920 to 1930 year. In the result river maintenance, mangyoung river length was decreased by 15 km and abandoned channels of six points were made. Since then, weir was continuously increased to control bed slope and use water. Install of weir was to be the reason of changes on channel width, thalweg, vegetated bar, sand bar, water area. Present Mangyoung river show that water area was temporary increased in upper and middle reach because of weir installation. Total sand bar was only decreased in upper channel. The change of vegetated bar and sand bar was slight recently. In this result, Mangyoung river is inferred to reach stabilized channel although there is some difference to the lower reach.

• Journal of the Korean Institute of Landscape Architecture
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• v.48 no.1
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• pp.15-24
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• 2020

This work examines discourse on uses of computer technology and its transformation during the last thirty years effecting Korea landscape architecture. First, in the 1990s landscape architects begun to use computers as a new technology for landscape architecture, programming computer software utilities suitable for landscape research, planning, and design. The landscape architects, acting as computer programmers, tried to explore various techniques for landscape analysis and design with a piece of software, and various experts within the field of landscape architecture collaborated with each other. However, landscape architects mainly used computer technology as a tool as a substitute for hands-on cases. Since around the 2000s, the discourse on mapping and diagrammatic techniques as a visualization technique for landscaping processes have begun. Also, realistic representations for perspective drawings using graphic software have been increasingly important. The landscape architects, acting as graphic designers, focused on the specific visualization techniques for landscape planning and design. However, computer technology has been mainly used to produce realistic visuals aids for final presentations instead of creative exploration to generate landforms. Additionally, recent landscape architects have been using landscape performance modeling and parametric modeling for landform and landscape furniture design. The landscape architects as spatial designers are actively using computer modeling as creative form-generating tools during the design process.

• Journal of the Korean earth science society
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• v.27 no.1
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• pp.83-94
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• 2006

The objective of this paper is to extract and analyze the sediment environment change information in the Sachencheon, Gangneung, Korea that was seriously damaged as a result of typhoon Rusa aftermath early in September, 2002 using multi-temporal remote sensing data. For the extraction of change information, an unsupervised approach based on the automatic determination of thresholding values was applied. As the change detection results, turbidity changes right after typhoon Rusa, the decrease of wetlands, the increase of dry sand and channel width and changes of relative level in the stream due to seasonal variation were observed. Sedimentation in the cultivated areas and restoration works also affected the change near the Sacheoncheon. In addition to the change detection analysis, several environmental thematic maps including microtopographic map, distributions of estimated amount of flood deposits and flood hazard landform classification map were generated by using remote sensing and field survey data. In conclusion, multi-temporal remote sensing data can be effectively used for natural hazard analysis and damage information extraction and specific data processing techniques for high-resolution remote sensing data should also be developed.

• Korean Journal of Environment and Ecology
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• v.22 no.4
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• pp.453-460
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• 2008

This study conducted an analysis of plant species composition and vegetation at sea cliffs of the uninhabited islets off Ganghwa-gun by applying discontinuous classification method & continuous ordination method of species composition table by correlation. The analysis results are as follows: First, the plant showing the highest appearance frequency was Parthenocissus tricuspidata Planch.(58.3%), followed by Carpinus coreana Nak., Viburnum carlesii Hemsl. and Kalopanax septemlobus Koidz.(37.5%,respectively). As for a plant community, it was found that it consisted of Quercus mongolica community, Tilia mandshurica community, Carpinus coreana community, Sorbus alnifolia community and Pinus thunbergii community; as for the community distribution classified by individual islet, it was revealed that Quercus mongolica community appeared at Sosongdo and Bunjido; Tilia mandshurica community at Sosongdo and Daesongdo; Carpinus coreana community appeared at Woodo, Suribong and Bido; Sorbus alnifolia community at Susido, Sosongdo and Daesongdo, and Pinus thunbergii community at Seokdo and Woodo, respectively. The plant similarity classified by uninhabited islet was found to be the highest at Sosongdo and Daesongdo. This research judged the reason why the typical grassland community of coastal cliffs did not join these islets to be environmental conditions of rock landform where there exists almost no surface soil at most sea cliffs; thus, more detailed study on this was required.

• Journal of the Korean Geographical Society
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• v.38 no.3
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• pp.389-399
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• 2003

CRN (Cosmogenic radionuclide) methodology has been a versatile tool applicable to a wide range of geomorphology. This study was underiaken to ascertain the rate of erosion and exposure age of mountain-top detritus (tors and block streams) on Mt. Maneo by employing the concentrations of in-situ produced cosmogenic $^{10}$ Be and $^{26}$ Al from bedrock surfaces that are exposed to cosmic rays. The results suggest that tors on the summit were positioned here during the glacial period but no later than 65ka and block streams have been stabilized also since the last glacial period but no later than 38ka. The tors on the summit have been eroded at a slower rate (9m/Ma) than blocks on the hillslope (15m/Ma) since the initial abrupt exposure of each landform to cosmic rays, suggesting that there is a slight difference in the rate of erosion between the summit and the hillslope, and that the local relief between the two areas has been increased. When the $^{26}$ Al/$^{10}$ Be-$^{10}$ Be concentrations from samples are plotted in Lal's steady-state erosion island, one sample (from a for) has complex exposure histories, which can be explained by the occurrence of multiple chipping event of 5cm to 60cm in length on the surface of the rock.