• Journal of Ginseng Research
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• v.35 no.3
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• pp.375-383
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• 2011

In the previous report, we have demonstrated that ginsenoside Rc, one of major ginsenosides, is a major component for the restoration for normal growth of worms in cholesterol-deprived medium. In the present study, we further investigated the roles of minor ginsenosides, such as ginsenoside $Rh_1$ and $Rh_2$, ginsenoside metabolites such as compound K (CK), protopanaxadiol (PPD), and protopanaxatriol (PPT) and ginsenoside epimers such as 20(R)- and 20(S)-ginsenoside $Rg_3$ in cholesterol-deprived medium. We found that ginsenoside $Rh_1$ almost restored normal growth of worms in cholesterol-deprived medium in F1 generation. However, supplement of ginsenoside $Rh_2$ caused a suppression of worm growths in cholesterol-deprived medium. In addition, CK and PPD also slightly restored normal growth of worms in cholesterol-deprived medium but PPT not. In experiments using ginsenoside epimers, supplement of 20(S)- but not 20(R)-ginsenoside $Rg_3$ in cholesterol-deprived medium also almost restored worm growth. These results indicate that the absence or presence of carbohydrate component at backbone of ginsenoside, the number of carbohydrate attached at carbon-3, and the position of hydroxyl group at carbon-20 of ginsenoside might plays important roles in restoration of worm growth in cholesterol-deprived medium.

• Journal of Ginseng Research
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• v.19 no.2
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• pp.114-116
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• 1995

Panax ginseng ginsenosides were examined for their affects on the DNA synthesis. The DNA 1 synthesis was measured by the thymidine incorporation into NIH3T3 cells. The ginsenoside, panaxytriol, $Rh_1$ and $Rh_2$ showed reduced [$^{3}H$]-thymidine incorporation. However, other ginsenosides of $Rh_1$, $Rh_2$ and $Rh_3$ did not inhibit DNA synthesis. Among the various ginsenosides, ginsenoside $Rh_2$ was found to be the most inhibitory on DNA synthesis. We suggest $Rh_2$ as one of the potential choice of antiproliferative drugs.

• Journal of Ginseng Research
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• v.19 no.3
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• pp.291-294
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• 1995

Total saponin was isolated from ginseng leaf, which was hydrolyzed in alkaline condition. The hydrolyzed products were identified as monogluco-ginsenoside, ginsenoside Rh1, Rh2 and compound K, which showed anticancer effects against human cancer cell lines (SNU 717, Daudi, and Jurkat).

• Journal of Ginseng Research
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• v.48 no.2
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• pp.171-180
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• 2024

Background: Epimers of ginsenoside Rg3 (Rg3) have a low bioavailability and are prone to deglycosylation, which produces epimers of ginsenoside Rh2 (S-Rh2 and R-Rh2) and protopanaxadiol (S-PPD and R-PPD). The aim of this study was to compare the efficacy and potency of these molecules as anti-cancer agents. Methods: Crystal violet staining was used to study the anti-proliferatory action of the molecules on a human epithelial breast cancer cell line, MDA-MB-231, and human umbilical vein endothelial cells (HUVEC) and compare their potency. Cell death and cell cycle were studied using flow cytometry and mode of cell death was studied using live cell imaging. Anti-angiogenic effects of the drug were studied using loop formation assay. Molecular docking showed the interaction of these molecules with vascular endothelial growth factor receptor-2 (VEGFR2) and aquaporin (AQP) water channels. VEGF bioassay was used to study the interaction of Rh2 with VEGFR2, in vitro. Results: HUVEC was the more sensitive cell line to the anti-proliferative effects of S-Rh2, S-PPD and R-PPD. The molecules induced necroptosis/necrosis in MDA-MB-231 and apoptosis in HUVEC. S-Rh2 was the most potent inhibitor of loop formation. In silico molecular docking predicted a good binding score between Rh2 or PPD and the ATP-binding pocket of VEGFR2. VEGF bioassay showed that Rh2 was an allosteric modulator of VEGFR2. In addition, SRh2 and PPD had good binding scores with AQP1 and AQP5, both of which play roles in cell migration and proliferation. Conclusion: The combination of these molecules might be responsible for the anti-cancer effects observed by Rg3.

• Food Science and Biotechnology
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• v.18 no.1
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• pp.262-266
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• 2009

To evaluate the anticolitic effect of red ginseng (RG, the steamed root of Panax ginseng CA. Meyer, Araliaceae), RG and its representative constituents, ginsenosides Rg3 and Rh2, were orally administered to dextran sulfate sodium (DSS)-induced colitic mice and inflammatory markers investigated. RG and its constituents, ginsenosides Rg3 and Rh2, inhibited colon shortening and myeloperoxidase activity induced by DSS. The ginsenosides Rg3 and Rh2 inhibited mRNA expression of interleukin (IL)-$1{\beta}$ as well as protein levels of IL-$1{\beta}$ and IL-6. These ginsenosides also inhibited the activation of a transcription nuclear factor (NF)-${\kappa}B$. Ginsenoside Rh2 was a more potent inhibitor than ginsenoside Rg3. The anticolitic effects of these ginsenosides were comparable with sulfasalazine.

• Journal of Ginseng Research
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• v.20 no.1
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• pp.111-112
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• 1996

The chemical shifts of C-21 and C-23 in the $^{13}C$-NMR for (20R)-protopanaxatriol, (20R)-ginsenoside $Rh_1$ and (20R)-ginsenoside $Rg_3$ were revised by employing some extensive 2D-NMR techniques.

• Proceedings of the Ginseng society Conference
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• 1984.09a
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• pp.159-168
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• 1984

생약의 화학적 특성에 대한 계속적인 연구가 이루어짐에 따라 우리는 홍삼 및 백삼의 화학성분을 상대적으로 규명하였다. 홍삼은 극성이 약한 분획에서 5개의 새로운 배당체(20R-ginsenoside $Rg_{2},\;Rh_{1};20R$, 20S-ginsenoside $Rg_{3}; ginsenoside\;Rh_{2}$와 새로운 아세칠렌 화합물(Panaxytriol)을 함유하는 특징적인 성분들이 gins - enoside Rh1, Rg2와 함께 분리되었다. ginsenoside Rh2는 배양된 종양세포에 대해 세포독소 효과를 보여주었다. 백삼은 수용성 분획에서 특징적인 성분이 있는 것으로 밝혀졌으며, 여기에서 malonly-ginsenosides Rb1, Rb2, Rc 및 Rd로 명명된 새로운 배당체 성분이 분리되었다. Malona-ginsenosides는 백삼에서는 주요한 배당체이지만, 홍삼에서는 검출되지 않았다.

• Journal of Ginseng Research
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• v.41 no.4
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• pp.496-502
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• 2017

Background: Ginsenosides are the major components of Panax ginseng Meyer, an herbal medicine used for the treatment of various diseases. Different ginsenosides contribute to the biological properties of ginseng, such as antimicrobial, anticancer, and immunomodulatory properties. In this study, we investigated the antiviral effects of 15 ginsenosides and compound K on gammaherpesvirus. Methods: The antiviral activity of ginsenosides was examined using the plaque-forming assay and by analyzing the expression of the lytic gene. Results: 20(R)-Ginsenoside Rh2 inhibited the replication and proliferation of murine gammaherpesvirus 68 (MHV-68), and its half-maximal inhibitory concentration ($IC_{50} $) against MHV-68 was estimated to be $2.77{\mu}M$. In addition, 20(R)-ginsenoside Rh2 inhibited 12-O-tetradecanoylphorbol-13-acetate (TPA)-induced lytic replication of human gammaherpesvirus in the Kaposi's sarcoma-associated herpesvirus (KSHV)-positive cell line BC3. Conclusion: Our results indicate that 20(R)-ginsenoside Rh2 can inhibit the replication of mouse and human gammaherpesviruses, and thus, has the potential to treat gammaherpesvirus infection.

• Journal of Ginseng Research
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• v.45 no.6
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• pp.734-743
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• 2021

Background: The underlying mechanisms of the potential tumor-suppressive effects of ginsenoside Rh2 are complex. N6-methyladenosine (m6A) RNA methylation is usually dysregulated in cancer. This study explored the regulatory effect of ginsenoside Rh2 on m6A RNA methylation in cancer. Methods: m6A RNA quantification and gene-specific m6A RIP-qPCR assays were applied to assess total and gene-specific m6A RNA levels. Co-immunoprecipitation, fractionation western blotting, and immunofluorescence staining were performed to detect protein interactions and distribution. QRT-PCR, dual-luciferase, and ChIP-qPCR assays were conducted to check the transcriptional regulation. Results: Ginsenoside Rh2 reduces m6A RNA methylation and KIF26B expression in a dose-dependent manner in some cancers. KIF26B interacts with ZC3H13 and CBLL1 in the cytoplasm of cancer cells and enhances their nuclear distribution. KIF26B inhibition reduces m6A RNA methylation level in cancer cells. SRF bound to the KIF26B promoter and activated its transcription. SRF mRNA m6A abundance significantly decreased upon KIF26B silencing. SRF knockdown suppressed cancer cell proliferation and growth both in vitro and in vivo, the effect of which was partly rescued by KIF26B overexpression. Conclusion: ginsenoside Rh2 reduces m6A RNA methylation via downregulating KIF26B expression in some cancer cells. KIF26B elevates m6A RNA methylation via enhancing ZC3H13/CBLL1 nuclear localization. KIF26B-SRF forms a positive feedback loop facilitating tumor growth.

• Korean Journal of Microbiology
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• v.54 no.4
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• pp.436-441
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• 2018

Ginseng are native traditional herbs, which exhibit excellent pharmacological activities. Probiotic Lactobacillus helveticus KII13 and Pediococcus pentosaceus strain KID7 were used for ginsenoside transformation by fermenting crude ginseng extract to enhance minor gisenoside content. Thin-layer chromatography (TLC) analysis of fermented ginseng extract showed that the minor ginsenosides Rg3, Rh1, and Rh2 were main products after 5 days of fermentation. HPLC analysis was performed to quantify the major and minor ginsenosides. The Rg3 peak appeared on the 3rd day while the appearance of Rh2 peak and Rh1 peak were observed on the 5th day. The co-culture of L. helveticus KII13 and P. pentosaceus KID7 converted major ginsenosides (Rb1 and Rg1) into minor ginsenosides (Rg3, Rh2, and Rh1).