• Journal of the Korean Wood Science and Technology
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• v.42 no.3
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• pp.244-250
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• 2014

This study was conducted to identify wood species of 72 wooden parts (pillar, beam, jangyeo, purlin, judu, soro, bracket, deagong, ceiling panel, etc.) used for Daewungjeon Hall in the Woonsoosa Temple, Busan in Korea. Identified wood species were 67 Pinus spp. (Kesiya group), 4 Carpinus spp. and 1 Quercus spp. (Cerris group). In pillars, 14 red pines and 4 Carpinus and in purlins, 4 red pines and 1 Cerris were found. Other elements were red pines. Carpinus woods, which were used for the lower portions of three pillars (Dongbari), seemed repaired parts. A carved wood used for the stand of Buddhist statues was identified as Alnus spp. This study showed that Daewungjeon Hall of the Woonsoosa Temple was made mostly of red pines.

• Journal of architectural history
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• v.24 no.6
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• pp.45-55
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• 2015

After the Korean war, two major attempts were made to reconstruct Gwanghwamun Gate as an important part of Korea's lost cultural heritage. In December 2006, the Korean government replaced the concrete gate with a wooden one, yet traces of the attempts made in the 1960s to transform Gwanghwamun Gate and the main road remain to this day. At the time, the Third Republic of Korea, sought to legitimize itself in the name of modernity, and went on to modernize the architecture and urban landscape of Seoul. The location and design selected for the rebuilt Gwanghwamun illustrated the symbolic relationship between historic heritage and urban development. The reconstruction of the gate began as part of the Third Republic's project to restore the Central Administration Building and culminated in the transformation of the main road in front of the gate. By reconstructing the traditional gate using concrete, the military government intended to convey the message that we could inherit our proud tradition using modern materials, and that we should actively adopt the new technologies of the modern era. This study begins with the premise that the Gwanghwamun reconstruction project of 1968 represents the application of new technological thinking to Korea's architectural style, and has two objectives. The first is to summarize the reconstruction process and method using the records and drawings from the 1968 project, which was then under the leadership of architect Kang Bong-jin. The second is to analyze the characteristics of the architectural style and structure of the reconstructed Gwanghwamun so as to reinterpret the relationship between Korean tradition and modern technology.

• Journal of Conservation Science
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• v.9 no.1
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• pp.48-52
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• 2000

A hundred wooden foundation piles were found underground during reconstruction for Heungreamun after removing ex-Chosunchongdokbu (ex-Government General of Chosun) building, which was built in 1916, at Kyungbok Palace in Seoul. It is known that larch piles had been collected from the Yaru area near Mt. Baekdu (Changbai). in North Korea. We examined 15 piles for identification of the species and their tree-ring structure. The species is identified as Larix gmelini by microscopic observation. Average diameter of the piles was 27 cm and average age 103 years. We obtained 151 year tree-ring chronology. However, we could not date the exact cutting years because there was no reference chronology yet. When we can obtain chronologies from living trees near the Yaru area, we could make a absolute and longer chronology for studying past history and environments around Mt. Baekdu.

• Korean Journal of Heritage: History & Science
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• v.49 no.2
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• pp.20-55
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• 2016

Koguryo's tomb mural paintings in North Korea are our precious cultural heritage which have been designated as UNESCO World Heritage property receiving high praise in the following criterion, i) exceptional creativeness of human being, ii) representative value showing the stage of development in construction history of East-Asia, iii) aesthetic superiority iv) uniqueness of building construction including tombs' ceiling. Mural paintings have been found from almost 100 tombs of the Koguryo dynasty out of 130 which are scattered across Huanren County, Lianoning Province, Ji'an, Jilin Province in China and Pyongyang in North Korea. Especially, most of them are gathered in Pyongyang from 4th and 5th century. Peculiarly, some of them have been constructed before King Jangsu's transfer of the capital to Pyongyang(AD 427). It can be regarded that Pyongyang territory had been under control of Koguryo and to become a new capital in the near future. And dense emergence of such tombs since the capital transfer from Gungnae City to Pyongyang during the reign of Jangsu is linked closely to the construction of tombs for rulers under strengthen royal authority of Jangsu and centralized system of authoritarian rule. Tomb mural paintings describe the owner's figure pictorially based on the truth just as in his living years. General lifestyles of ruling powers and sovereigns can be seen from the wall paintings portraying several buildings with various styles, figures, manners of living, which are considered that the tomb owner had led politically and sociologically in his life. In spite of not enough proofs to approve figure of architectures or "Gong-Po" in wall paintings on the tombs as those of Koguryo, it is persuasive with consideration for painting and decoration inside the tomb like wooden building in real life for the purpose of reenacting and continuing the tomb owner's luxurious life after death. "Du-Gong-Po-Zak" had appeared in company with Koguryo tomb murals and it can be found in most of the murals. And the emergence of substantial "Gong-Po-Do" can be counted more than a century ahead of the figure in murals. It could be a reasonable assumption as regards Koguryo tomb murals time of appearance match up with production period of Gahyungmyunggi(家形明器) and Hwasangseok(畵像石) Hwasangjeon(畵像塼) Design in the Mural Painting of the East-Han(東漢) Ancient Tombs in China. On this study, architectural "Gong-Po"s described in Koguryo tomb murals are categorized largely in "Bi(non)-Po-Zak-kye", "Jun(semi)-Po-Zak-kye", and "Po-Zak-kye" based on presence of "Ju-Du", "Cheom-Cha", and "Cheom-Cha-Sal-Mi" with developmental aspect, and, "Po-zak" is subdivided as "Bi(non)-Cheul-Mok" and "Cheul-Mok" types.

• Korean Journal of Heritage: History & Science
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• v.42 no.4
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• pp.172-197
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• 2009

The stone stupas of the Mireuk Temple Site and Jeongnim Temple Site were the beginning of Korean stone stupa and the unique ones stemming from the Baeje period. Therefore, the work of investigating the characteristics of these two stone stupas would give us a basis for understanding Korean stone stupas in a large scale and Baekje-style stone stupas in a narrow sense. As shown in some records, the excellent architectural skills of Baekje could be known by the fact that Abiji was invited to the building of Hwangryong Wooden stupa, one of the national undertakings of Shilla and the skills and styles related to stone stupas were thought to be disseminated in this process. However, it has not been very convincing that the stone stupas with Baekje styles were disconnected in an instant with the unification of Shilla, in terms that culture and art would inherited and developed. The current academic circle set a frame and defined all these types of stone stupas as Baekje-system stone stupas built in Goryeo period and put them in a uniformly chronological order. The popularization of Buddhism, support of regionally powerful clans and cultural revival were suggested as the factors of their appearance, but it seemed difficult to be assured that these led Baeje-style stone stupas to reappear in a moment by breaking the gap of about 300 years. Of course, it has not been active in Gyeongju area, but they have greatly influenced the stone stupas of Shilla; therefore, it would be possible to consider that they were developed but limited to certain areas. This study focused on the starting point of such development and investigated the formation of Baeje-style stone stupas through the stone stupas of the Mireuk Temple Site and Jeongnim Temple Site and their subsequent development through Wanggung-ri Stone Stupa.

• Korean Journal of Heritage: History & Science
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• v.37
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• pp.151-168
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• 2004

The Mireuk Temple Stone pagoda is the largest scale of the existing Stone Pagoda in Korea. A research until now postulates that the Stone pagoda at Mireuk Temple site is composed of nine stories total. However it does not have any records of the detail, dimension, and related methods, etc, even though it is a tectonically large scale building. Only one source of the description is based upon a story which is a sort of Korean myth or traditional story (Samkukyousa, Mu dynasty), although a historical description from a myth or a story is a polemical issue and still needed research in order to prove the truth. One of the ways to make a proof of the truth is an architectural research from the typology of the plane. The types of the plane are differentiated from each era. Therefore, the typology of the plane presents a reason or a proof for the age of the pagoda. Furthermore, the typology of the plane is crucial part in the research of the historical style and it could help the historical style of the Mireuk temple stone pagoda. Research until now shows that the Mireuk temple stone pagoda is the genesis of the stone pagoda shaped after wooden one. It is impossible to find any previous one from the stone pagoda at Mireuk Temple site in Korea. So it is easier to find any previous example from the history of China because Buddhist pagoda-most pagodas are something to do with Buddhism-in Korea is introduced by India via China. This research presents the periodical variation of stone and brick pagoda in both countries. It concludes that the Mireuk temple stone pagoda has $7^{th}$ century's plane type.

• Korean Journal of Heritage: History & Science
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• v.52 no.4
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• pp.124-141
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• 2019

This research explored the relationship between the water quality issue of Wolji Pond (Anapji Pond) with the maintenance of the channel flow circulation system. The water supply and drainage system closely related to the circulation system of pond has been reviewed, rather than the existing water supply and drainage system that has been analyzed in previous studies. As a result of reviewing the water supply system, it has been learned that the water supply system on the southeastern shore of Wolji Pond, being the current water supply hole, has been connected to the east side garden facility (landscaping stone, curved waterway, storage facility of water) between the north and south fence and the waterway. This separate facility group seems to have been a subject of the investigation of the eastern side of Wolji Pond, with the landscaping stones having been identified in the 1920's survey drawings. The water supply facility on the southeastern shore, being the suspected water supply hole, seems to have some connection with the granite waterway remaining on the building site of Imhaejeon (臨海殿) on the southern side of Wolji Pond. It is inferred that it provides clean water, seeing that the slope towards the southwestern shore of Wolji Pond becomes lower, the landscaping stones have been placed in the filter area, and it is present in the 1920's survey drawings and the water supply hole survey drawing of 1975. The water drainage facility on the northern shore is composed of five stages. The functions of the wooden waterway and the rectangular stone water catchment facility seem not to be only for the water drainage of Wolji Pond. In light of the points that there are wood plugs in the wooden waterway and that there is a water catchment facility in the final stage, it is judged that the water of Balcheon Stream (撥川) may be charged in reverse according to this setup. Namely, the water could enter and exit in either direction in the water drainage facility on the northern shore It also seems that the supply to the wooden waterway could be opened and shut through the water catchment facility of rectangular stone group as well. The water drainage facility on the western shore is very similar to the water drainage facility on the northern shore, so it is difficult to avoid the belief that it existed during the Silla Dynasty, or it has been produced by imitating the water drainage facility on the northern shore at some future point in time. It seems to have functioned as the water drainage facility for the supply of agricultural water during the Joseon Dynasty. The water supply and drainage facilities in Wolji Pond have been understood as a systematized distribution network that has been intertwined organically with the facility of Donggung Palace, which was the center of the Silla capital. Water has been supplied to each facility group, including Wolji Pond, through this structure; it includes the drainage system connecting to the Namcheon River (南川) through the Balcheon Stream, which was an important canal of the capital center.

• Journal of the Architectural Institute of Korea Planning & Design
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• v.35 no.7
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• pp.81-88
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• 2019

The purpose of this study is to investigate the relations between brick and stone brick pagodas in all classes of pagoda with their construction and shape. Research objects of this study are brick and stone brick pagodas of National Treasure and Treasure and masonry pagodas that are similar to brick and stone brick pagoda. This study includes checking preceding researches, drawing questions from these preceding researches, and finding answers from these questions. The results of this study are as follows. First, pagoda of Bunhwangsa Temple, the first pagoda in the Silla Dynasty, was built as a masonry pagoda, not a stone brick pagoda. Second, roofs of stone brick pagoda barrows from brick pagoda's techniques for performance of material and ease construction. Third, brick or stone brick pagodas' base have Type II that has low and extensive foundation with soil and stones usually. Forth, Korean pagodas are categorized by their materials, construction methods, and shapes. Wooden pagodas, stone pagodas, and brick pagodas are categorized by materials, post-and lintel pagodas and masonry stone pagodas are categorized by construction methods, and pitched roof pagodas and terraced roof pagodas are categorized by shapes. Fifth, masonry pagodas of Buddhism that have shape of multi-story building were developed from Doltap, traditional stone stack, and they advanced with brick pagodas and stone pagodas to terraced roof stone pagodas and post-and lintel base brick pagodas.

• Korean Journal of Heritage: History & Science
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• v.48 no.3
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• pp.96-119
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• 2015

This research has studied the changes of Gwi-po(轉角包) by taking the cases of China's medieval wooden buildings as objects. The purpose of the study is to examine the time-periodic transition process of Gwi-po through the cases of 71 wooden buildings which were built from Tang(唐) dynasty(AD 618~690 & 705~907) until Jin(金) dynasty(AD 1115~1234) and also designated as 'Major Historical and Cultural Sites Protected at the National Level'. This research has taken note of various frame types of Jwau-dae(左右隊), which are architectural components of Gwi-po, to study the changes and development process of Gwi-po. The results are as follows. An important factor in the transformations of Gwi-po format is the changes in perception of the craftsmen about Jwau-dae, who took charge in the building process. In the early periods, the principles of Yidou sanshen dougong(一斗三升) in constructing ancons of Gwi-po had been well-maintained, while there appeared many different types of Gwi-po in later periods, due to the usage of Jwau-dae and $Shu{\check{a}}$ $t{\acute{o}}u$(?頭) in each Chulmok of Gwi-po. Transitional types of Gwi-po, which were evolved from the earlier ones, are divided into 3 categories by different forms of Jwau-dae, placed on odd number stages. The first one is 'none-$f{\bar{a}}ng$ $t{\acute{o}}u$(無枋頭) type' of Song(AD 960~1127, 1127~1279) and Liao dynasty(AD 907~1125) buildings, which doesn't have $f{\bar{a}}ng$ $t{\acute{o}}u$(枋頭)s, for the reason that Jwau-dae(左右隊) is in direct contact with Gwihan-dae(耳限大). The second one is '$Shu{\check{a}}$ $t{\acute{o}}u$ $f{\bar{a}}ng$ $t{\acute{o}}u$(?頭枋頭) type' of Song(AD 960~1127, 1127~1279) and Jin dynasty(AD 1115~1234), that has $f{\bar{a}}ng$ $t{\acute{o}}u$(枋頭)s of Jwau-dae(左右隊) identical to $Shu{\check{a}}$ $t{\acute{o}}u$(?頭) in form. The last one is '$Xi{\check{a}}o$ $g{\check{o}}ng$ $t{\acute{o}}u$(小?頭) type' of Jin(AD 1115~1234) and Yuan dynasty(AD 1271~1368), which has $f{\bar{a}}ng$ $t{\acute{o}}u$(枋頭)s of Jwau-dae identical to $Xi{\check{a}}o$ $g{\check{o}}ng$ $t{\acute{o}}u$(小?頭) in form. The earlier forms of Gwi-po, which appeared between Tang dynasty(AD 618~690 & 705~907) and Five Dynasties periods(907~960) went through transitional forms of 'non-$f{\bar{a}}ng$ $t{\acute{o}}u$(無枋頭) type', '$Shu{\check{a}}$ $t{\acute{o}}u$ $f{\bar{a}}ng$ $t{\acute{o}}u$(?頭枋頭) type' and '$Xi{\check{a}}o$ $g{\check{o}}ng$ $t{\acute{o}}u$(小?頭) type' and finally had its form settled between Yuan(元, AD 1271~1368) and Ming(明. AD 1368~1644) dynasty periods. In Liao(遼) dynasty period(AD 907~1125), as the buildings got bigger and the tendency of longer eave-exposure was implemented, there grew a certain need to structurally reinforce Gwi-po, on which load of the whole roof is concentrated. Especially, the transition from Tōuxīn $z{\grave{a}}o$(偸心造) style to Jì xīn $z{\grave{a}}o$(計心造) style in this period had a great influence on standardization of Gwi-po, along with None-${\acute{A}}ng$(無仰) style. Furthermore, Wing-type Gong(翼型?), which developed in Liao dynasty(AD 907~1125), is also thought to have had a great influence on the transition from Tōuxīn $z{\grave{a}}o$(偸心造) style to Jì xīn $z{\grave{a}}o$(計心造) style by changing the forms of Gongs(?), such as Gwi-po. However, unlike None-${\acute{A}}ng$(無仰) style, there occurred a gradual change from '$Shu{\check{a}}$ $t{\acute{o}}u$ $f{\bar{a}}ng$ $t{\acute{o}}u$(?頭枋頭) type' to '$Xi{\check{a}}o$ $g{\check{o}}ng$ $t{\acute{o}}u$(小?頭) type' of Gwi-po in $Xi{\grave{a}}$ ${\acute{a}}ng$ style.

• Economic and Environmental Geology
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• v.43 no.3
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• pp.269-278
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• 2010

We investigated characteristics of the coloring material of Dancheong pigments and hope that this study contributes the revival of traditional Dancheong pigments color. For this purpose, we collected Dancheong fragment samples that fell off naturally from old wooden buildings in Gwangju and Jeonnam and analyzed the natural coloring material by XRD and EDS-SEM analysis method. In white pigments of Dancheong fragments, it is confirmed that gypsum$(CaSO_{4}{\cdot}2H_{2}O)$, quartz$(SiO_{2})$, white lead$(PbCO_{3})$ and calcite$(CaCO_{3})$ which have been used for white pigments since ancient times and $TiO_{2}$ which is common used in modern times. In red pigments of Dancheong fragments, it is confirmed that hematite$(Fe_{2}O_{3})$ and red lead$(Pb_{3}O_{4})$, which have been used for red pigments since ancient times and C.I. pigment orange $13(C_{32}H_{24}C_{12}N_{8}O_{2})$ but there is no cinnabar(HgS) which has been used since B.C. 3000 in China. In yellow pigments of Dancheong fragments, it is confirmed that crocoite$(PbCrO_{4})$ and massicot(PbO). In blue pigments of Dancheong fragments, it is confirmed that sodalite$(Na_{4}BeAlSi_{4}O_{12}Cl)$ and nosean $(Na_{8}Al_{6}Si_{6}O_{24}SO_{4})$ as coloring material of blue pigment and C.I. pigments blue $29(Na_{7}Al_{6}Si_{6}O_{24}S_{3})$ which is used in modern times. In green pigments of Dancheong fragments, it is confirmed that calumetite$(Cu(OHCI)_{2}{\cdot}2H_{2}O)$, escolaite(Cr2O3), dichromium trioxide$(Cr_{2}O_{3})$, emerald green$(C_{2}H_{3}As_{3}Cu_{2}O_{8})$, and C.I. pigments green$(C_{32}H_{16}-XCl_{x}Cu_{8})$ which is used in modern time. In black pigments of Dancheong fragments, Chiness ink(carbon black) is confirmed.