• Journal of Ginseng Research
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• v.35 no.2
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• pp.209-218
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• 2011

Ginseng has been used as a general tonic agent to invigorate the human body as an adaptogenic agent. In a previous report, we have shown that ginseng contains a novel glycolipoprotein called gintonin. The main function of gintonin is to transiently enhance intracellular free $Ca^{2+}$ $[Ca^{2+}]_i$ levels in animal cells. The previous method for gintonin isolation included multiple steps using organic solvents. In the present report, we developed a simple method for the preparation of crude gintonin from ginseng root as well as stem and leaf, which produced a higher yield of gintonin than the previous one. The yield of gintonin was 0.20%, 0.29%, and 0.81% from ginseng root, stem, and leaf, respectively. The apparent molecular weight of gintonin isolated from stem and leaf through sodium dodecyl sulfate polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis was almost same as that from root but the compositions of amino acids, carbohydrates or lipids differed slightly between them. We also examined the effects of crude gintonin from ginseng root, stem, and leaf on endogenous $Ca^{2+}$-activated $Cl^-$ channel (CaCC) activity of Xenopus oocytes through mobilization of $[Ca^{2+}]_i$. We found that the order of potency for the activation of CaCC was ginseng root > stem > leaf. The $ED_{50}$ was $1.4{\pm}1.4$, $4.5{\pm}5.9$, and $3.9{\pm}1.1$ mg/mL for root, stem and leaf, respectively. In the present study, we demonstrated for the first time that in addition to ginseng root, ginseng stem and leaf also contain gintonin. Gintonin can be prepared from a simple method with higher yield of gintonin from ginseng root, stem, and leaf. Finally, these results demonstrate the possibility that ginseng stem and leaf could also be utilized for ginstonin preparation after a simple procedure, rather than being discarded.

• Journal of Ginseng Research
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• v.43 no.4
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• pp.508-516
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• 2019

Background: Ginsenosides are not only the principal bioactive components but also the important indexes to the quality assessment of Panax ginseng Meyer. Their contents in cultivated ginseng vary with the growth environment and age. The present study aimed at evaluating the significant difference between 36 cultivated ginseng of different cultivation areas and ages based on the simultaneously determined contents of 14 ginsenosides. Methods: A high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) coupled with triple quadrupole mass spectrometer (MS) method was developed and used in the multiple reaction-monitoring (MRM) mode (HPLC-MRM/MS) for the quantitative analysis of ginsenosides. Multivariate statistical analysis, such as principal component analysis and partial least squares-discriminant analysis, was applied to discriminate ginseng samples of various cultivation areas and ages and to discover the differentially accumulated ginsenoside markers. Results: The developed HPLC-MRM/MS method was validated to be precise, accurate, stable, sensitive, and repeatable for the simultaneous determination of 14 ginsenosides. It was found that the 3- and 5-yr-old ginseng samples were differentiated distinctly by all means of multivariate statistical analysis, whereas the 4-yr-old samples exhibited similarity to either 3- or 5-yr-old samples in the contents of ginsenosides. Among the 14 detected ginsenosides, Rg1, Rb1, Rb2, Rc, 20(S)-Rf, 20(S)-Rh1, and Rb3 were identified as potential markers for the differentiation of cultivation ages. In addition, the 5-yr-old samples were able to be classified in cultivation area based on the contents of ginsenosides, whereas the 3- and 4-yr-old samples showed little differences in cultivation area. Conclusion: This study demonstrated that the HPLC-MRM/MS method combined with multivariate statistical analysis provides deep insight into the accumulation characteristics of ginsenosides and could be used to differentiate ginseng that are cultivated in different areas and ages.

• Journal of Ginseng Research
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• v.39 no.1
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• pp.22-28
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• 2015

Background: Sun ginseng (SG), a specific formulation of quality-controlled red ginseng, contains approximately equal amounts of three major ginsenosides (RK1, Rg3, and Rg5), which reportedly has antitumor-promoting activities in animal models. Methods: MTT assay was used to assess whether SG can potentiate the anticancer activity of epirubicin or paclitaxel in human cervical adenocarcinoma HeLa cells, human colon cancer SW111C cells, and SW480 cells; apoptosis status was analyzed by annexin V-FITC and PI and analyzed by flow cytometry; and apoptosis pathway was studied by analysis of caspase-3, -8, and -9 activation, mitochondrial accumulation of Bax and Bak, and cytochrome c release. Results: SG remarkably enhances cancer cell death induced by epirubicin or paclitaxel in human cervical adenocarcinoma HeLa cells, human colon cancer SW111C cells, and SW480 cells. Results of the mechanism study highlighted the cooperation between SG and epirubicin or paclitaxel in activating caspase-3 and -9 but not caspase-8. Moreover, SG significantly increased the mitochondrial accumulation of both Bax and Bak triggered by epirubicin or paclitaxel as well as the subsequent release of cytochrome c in the targeted cells. Conclusion: SG significantly potentiated the anticancer activities of epirubicin and paclitaxel in a synergistic manner. These effects were associated with the increased mitochondrial accumulation of both Bax and Bak that led to an enhanced cytochrome c release, caspase-9/-3 activation, and apoptosis. Treating cancer cells by combining epirubicin and paclitaxel with SG may prove to be a novel strategy for enhancing the efficacy of the two drug types.

• Proceedings of the PSK Conference
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• 2001.10a
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• pp.193.1-193.1
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• 2001

• Journal of Plant Biotechnology
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• v.49 no.3
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• pp.240-249
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• 2022

Measuring chlorophyll fluorescence (CF) is a useful tool for assessing a plant's ability to tolerate abiotic stresses such as drought, waterlogging and high temperature. Korean ginseng is highly sensitive to water stress in paddy fields. To evaluate the possibility of non-destructively diagnosing waterlogging stress using chlorophyll fluorescence (CF) imaging techniques, we screened 57 ginseng accessions for waterlogging tolerance. To evaluate waterlogging tolerance among the 2-year-old Korean ginseng accessions, we treated ginseng plants with water stress for 25 days. The physiological disorder rate was characterized through visual assessment (an assigned score of 0-5). The physiological disorder rates of Geumjin, Geumsun and GS00-58 were lower than that of other accessions. In contrast, lines GS97-62, GS97-69 and GS98-1-5 were deemed susceptible. Root traits, chlorophyll content and the reduction rates decreased in most ginseng accessions. Further, these metrics were significantly lower in susceptible genotypes compared to resistant ones. All CF parameters showed a positive or negative response to waterlogging stress, and this response continuously increased over the treatment time among the genotypes. The CF parameter Fv/Fm was used to screen the 57 accessions, and the results showed clear differences in Fv/Fm between the susceptible and resistant genotypes. Susceptible genotypes had an especially low Fv/Fm value of less than 0.8, reflecting damage to the reaction center of photosystem II. It is concluded that Fv/Fm can be used as a CF parameter index for screening waterlogging stress tolerance in ginseng genotypes.

• Journal of Ginseng Research
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• v.47 no.6
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• pp.714-725
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• 2023

Background: Our previous investigation indicated that the preparation of Panax ginseng Meyer (P. ginseng) inhibited melanogenesis. It comprised salicylic acid (SA), protocatechuic acid (PA), p-coumaric acid (p-CA), vanillic acid (VA), and caffeic acid (CA). In this investigation, the regulatory effects of P. ginseng phenolic acid monomers on melanin production were assessed. Methods: In vitro and in vivo impact of phenolic acid monomers were assessed. Results: SA, PA, p-CA and VA inhibited tyrosinase (TYR) to reduce melanin production, whereas CA had the opposite effects. SA, PA, p-CA and VA significantly downregulated the melanocortin 1 receptor (MC1R), cycle AMP (cAMP), protein kinase A (PKA), cycle AMP-response element-binding protein (CREB), microphthalmia-associated transcription factor (MITF) pathway, reducing mRNA and protein levels of TYR, tyrosinase-related protein 1 (TYRP1), and TYRP2. Moreover, CA treatment enhanced the cAMP, PKA, and CREB pathways to promote MITF mRNA level and phosphorylation. It also alleviated MITF protein level in α-MSH-stimulated B16F10 cells, comparable to untreated B16F10, increasing the expression of phosphorylation glycogen synthase kinase 3β (p-GSK3β), β-catenin, p-ERK/ERK, and p-p38/p38. Furthermore, the GSK3β inhibitor promoted p-GSK3β and p-MITF expression, as observed in CA-treated cells. Moreover, p38 and ERK inhibitors inhibited CA-stimulated p-p38/p38, p-ERK/ERK, and p-MITF increase, which had negative binding energies with MC1R, as depicted by molecular docking. Conclusion: P. ginseng roots' phenolic acid monomers can safely inhibit melanin production by bidirectionally regulating melanin synthase transcription. Furthermore, they reduced MITF expression via MC1R/cAMP/PKA signaling pathway and enhanced MITF post-translational modification via Wnt/mitogen-activated protein kinase signaling pathway.

• Proceedings of the Ginseng society Conference
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• 1984.09a
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• pp.257-275
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• 1984

Enzymatic browning is considered desirable in tea and tobacco processing but undesirable in many fruits processing at the present time. It is necessary to understand the nature of the enzyme, phenoloxidase, in order to control browning reactions, and extend its effects to formation of browning products as antioxidants in ginseng. Ginseng exhibits antioxidant activity when incorporated with turkey dark meat patties. The activity in red ginseng showed about two times stronger than white ginseng. One of the phenolic antioxidants from fresh, white and reprocessed white ginseng was identified as phenol 2.6 Bis(1.1 dimethyl ethyl) 4-methyl among several unknown compounds by GC/mass spectrometer. In red ginseng, no phenol 2.6 Bis (1.1 dimethyl ethyl) 4-methyl was detected, the compound may be polymerized by phenoloxidase and form some higher molecular compounds which may possess high antioxidant activity. Phenoloxidase isozymes in fresh Korean ginseng (panax ginseng C.A. Meyer) were extracted with phosphate buffer at pH 7.3. The isozymes were purified through ammonium sulfate fractionation, dialysis and chromatography on a DEAE-cellulose column. Two groups of phenoloxidase were shown to be present, one in the floating agglomerated group and the other in the precipitate. group from the 0.85 saturation ammonium sulfate. The DEAE-cellulose column chromatography, the phenoloxidase isozyme present in the precipitate appears as the first peak (I), and that in the agglomerate in the second peak (II). Isozyme I showed higher activity with catechin and catechal, and isozyme II showed higher activity with p-cresol. The isozyme showed two optimum pH activity one at pH 4.5 and the other at 8.5 with catechin as substrate. Korean ginseng phenoloxidase has high heat stability. When heated at $75^{\circ}C$ for 2 hours, its activity remained $90\%\;and\;80\%$ on phenoloxidase I and II respectively. Phenoloxidase I was most active on (+) catechin followed by p-cresal, catechol and epicatechin. Phenoloxidase II was most active on p-cresal followed by (+) catechin, catechol, p-coumanic acid and epicatechin. Sodium bisulfite, sodium cyanide, ascorbic acid glutachion in the oxidized form, sodium diethyl dithiocarbomate and ethylendiamine tetra acetate (EDTA) acted as inhibitors. Red ginseng color development was initiated by phenoloxidase and finished by a followed sun drying process. The antiaging activity of ginseng may be initiated by the antioxidant in the ginseng.

• Korean Journal of Medicinal Crop Science
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• v.17 no.6
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• pp.452-457
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• 2009

This study was carried out to investigate the correlation between root diameter and ginsenoside composition of Panax ginseng C. A. Meyer cultivar Yunpoong. Dry matter ratio of main root was a little higher than that of lateral root and fine root, and that was higher by the increase of root diameter in the same root parts. Total ginsenosides composition of main and lateral roots increased by the decrease of root diameter, especially in lateral root. Similar resulted in fine root, but there was no significant difference where root diameter was below 2.5 mm. Except for ginsenoside-$Rg_1$, other ginsenosides component, PDs, PTs and total ginsenosides had highly negative correlation with the root diameter within whole root, main root+lateral root and lateral root+fine root, while $Rg_1$ had positive correlation with the root diameter.

• Korean Journal of Medicinal Crop Science
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• v.18 no.2
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• pp.70-73
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• 2010

This study was carried out to clarify the difference of growth characteristics and ginsenoside content in 5-year-old ginseng root grown by direct seeding and transplanting cultivation. Root weight per plant of direct seeding cultivation was lower than that of transplanting cultivation. Fresh and dry matter partitioning ratio of direct seeding cultivation was high in main root and low in lateral because direct seeding cultivation root elongated the length of main root, while it suppressed the growth of lateral root. Total amount of ginsenoside contents by direct seeding and transplanting cultivation were 362.8 and 320.3 mg in main root, 188.6 and 548.8 mg in lateral root, 170.7 and 273.8 mg in fine root. Its contents of whole root per plant were 722.1 and 1142.9 mg by direct seeding and transplanting, respectively.

• KOREAN JOURNAL OF CROP SCIENCE
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• v.59 no.1
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• pp.97-100
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• 2014

To explore the possibility of using pyroligneous acid for environmentally friendly ginseng farming, this study observed samples of ginseng whose shoots were treated with pyroligneous acid sprays beginning in mid June, which is after foliation stage. The spongy tissue structure got thickened from triple layers to quadruple layers with the pyroligneous acid regardless of the concentration. The upper and lower epidermis cell of the leaves as well as the leaf mesopyll cells also became thicker. Compared to the no-treatment group, the overall growth and development of ginseng roots treated with pyroligneous acid were excellent. Accordingly, it is believed that pyroligneous acid can be an environmentally friendly alternative to conventional agro-chemicals applied to ginseng that can be used to facilitate the growth and development of ginseng.