• The Korea Journal of Herbology
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• v.27 no.6
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• pp.131-137
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• 2012

Objectives : Cyclooxygenase (COX) plays a central role in the inflammatory cascade by converting arachidonic acid into prostaglandin. COX-2 is typically induced by inflammatory stimuli in the majority of tissues, it is responsible for propagating the inflammatory response and thus, considered as the best target for anti-inflammatory drugs. The present study investigated the modulatory effect of ginsenoside Rg3, a principle active ingredient in Panax ginseng, on COX-2 expression in the brain tissue induced by systemic lipopolysaccharide (LPS) treatment in C57BL/6 mice. Methods : Because systemic LPS treatment induces COX-2 expression immediately in the brain, ginsenoside Rg3 was treated orally with doses of 10, 20, and 30 mg/kg at 1 hour before the LPS (3 mg/kg, i.p.) injection. At 4 hours after the LPS injection, COX-2 mRNA was measured by real-time polymerase chain reaction method, COX-2 protein levels were measured by Western blotting. In addition, COX-2 expressions in brain tissue were observed with immunohistochemistry and double immunofluoresence labeling. Results : Ginsenoside Rg3 (20 and 30 mg/kg) significantly attenuates up-regulation of COX-2 mRNA and protein expression in brain tissue at 4 hours after the LPS injection. Moreover, ginsenoside Rg3 (20 mg/kg) significantly reduced the number of COX-2 positive neurons in the cerebral cortex and amygdala. Conclusion : These results indicate that ginsenoside Rg3 plays a modulatory role in neuroinflammation through the inhibition of COX-2 expression in the brain and suggest that ginsenoside Rg3 and ginseng may be effective on neurodegenerative diseases caused by neuroinflammation.

• Korean Journal of Pharmacognosy
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• v.45 no.4
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• pp.315-319
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• 2014

This study compared the contents of ginseng prosapogenin depending on the extracting conditions of Skin White ginseng(Panax ginseng) to provide basic information for developing Skin White ginseng-based functional foods. Our findings show that the content of crude saponin peaked at 4 hours of extraction(SWG-4) and when extracted at $100^{\circ}C$. However, the content of total saponin reached its height at 8 hours of extraction at $100^{\circ}C$(SWG-8). On the other hand, the content of prosapogenin reached their heights at 60 hours of extraction(SWG-60), followed by 60 hours of extraction at $100^{\circ}C$. And at $100^{\circ}C$ the main prosapogenin of the content of Red and Black ginseng ginsenoside $Rg_3$, $Rg_5$ and $Rk_1$ reached their heights at 60 hours of extraction(SWG-60), followed by 60 hours of extraction.

• Korean Journal of Food Science and Technology
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• v.9 no.1
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• pp.24-30
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• 1977

The patterns of ginseng saponins in the commercial ginseng tea samples and each parts of ginseng plant were investigated by quantitative thin-layer chromatography. The quality of those sample teas were also evaluated. (1) White ginseng contained about $2.6{\sim}6.6$ times of Ra(o) than did other parts of ginseng. (2) Lateral roots, peelings and buds of ginseng were rich in $Rb_1$, $b_2$, c, which constituted about 50% of total saponin. (3) The ratio of Rb.c to Rg(f) in the leaves and stems of ginseng plant was 0.64 : 1. (White ginseng, 2 : 1 ; buds, 3 : 1 ; flower, 3.2 : 1 ; peelings, 5.8 : 1 ; lateral ginseng, 7 : 1) The relative content of Rg(f) in the white ginseng was about 3 times as much as the lateral ginseng. (4) The ratios of panaxadiol to panaxatriol in 13 kinds of commercial ginseng teas were in the range of $0.8{\sim}8\;:\;1$.

• Journal of Ginseng Research
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• v.31 no.4
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• pp.222-229
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• 2007

Changes on physicochemical properties of fresh Korean ginseng during repeated 9 times steaming processes, steaming $90{\sim}95^{\circ}C$ for $1{\sim}3\;hr$ followed by hot air-drying at $50^{\circ}C$ for $36{\sim}48\;hr$, were investigated. The water contents decreased from 73.4% of fresh ginseng to 13.7% finally. The final yields in bases of total weights and dry matter were 21.0% and 79.0%, respectively. As the times of steaming processes increased, lightness (L value) decreased and redness (a value) increased in color of ginseng powder. Browning index also rapidly increased after 3 times of steaming process in particular. Total water soluble sugar contents decreased from 55.4% in fresh to 38.6% in final processed ginseng, but acidic polysaccharide contents increased by about 50% with increasing times of steaming process. Total phenolic compound contents significantly increased with repeated steaming processes especially after 5 times of steaming processes and crude saponin contents also increased in some degree. In the case of major ginsenosides, the contents of $Rb_1$, $Rb_2$, $Rg_1$, Re (representative ginsenosides in fresh ginseng) decreased, but those of $Rg_2$, $Rh_1$, $Rg_3$ (unique ginsenosides in red ginseng) increased after especially 5 times of steaming processes.

• Journal of the Korean Applied Science and Technology
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• v.35 no.4
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• pp.1213-1223
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• 2018

This study was carried out to investigate extraction efficiency by microwave for extraction of pesticide residues and the bioconversion of ginsenosides of ginseng leaf by using various lactic acid bacteria in order to promote the utilization of ginseng leaf. The hexane extraction by microwave of tolclofos-methyl and azoxystrobin in ginseng leaf was efficient. The optimal condition for extraction of tolclofos-methyl and azoxystrobin in ginseng leaf by microwave was 50 to 95 watts of power supply, 3 minutes of extraction.The gisenosides Rg1 and Rb1 contents have decreased, while the Rh1, Rg3, Rk1 and Rh2 have increased due to fermentation. The ginsenosides Rg3 of the fermented ginseng leaf has increased and the contents were $70.62{\sim}77.61{\mu}g/g$(control $2.77{\mu}g/g$). The total phenolic acid content and electron donating ability of the ginseng leaf have totally decreased after 7 days of fermentation. The total phenolic acid contents of the fermented ginseng leaf with various lactic acid bacteria did not show any tendency as different strains.

• The Korea Journal of Herbology
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• v.23 no.1
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• pp.85-92
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• 2008

Objectives : This study was performed to efficiently make Black Panax Ginseng (BPG) and evaluate its antitumor activity. Methods : Panax ginseng was steamed at $95^{\circ}C$ for 3 h, dried and steamed again at $115^{\circ}C$ for 6 h. The main ginsenosides of BPG were $Rg_{3}$, $Rk_{1}$ and $Rg_{5}$. Results : Among the saponins in BPG, the amount of ginsenoside $Rg_{3}$ was determined by HPLC method. The 11.48 mg of ginsenoside $Rg_{3}$ was obtained from lg of dried BPG. The crude saponin fraction (CSF) of BPG was tested in vitro for its cytotoxic activities against various human cancer cell lines, such as ACHN, NCI-H23, HCT-15 and PC-3. The CSF of BPG exhibited stronger cytotoxic activity than that of red Panax ginsneng. CSF of BPG exhibited good cytotoxic activities against ACFIN, HCT-15, and PC-3 cell lines with $IC_{50}$ values of 60.3-90.8 ${\mu}g$/ml. However, CSF of BPG did not show any cytotoxic activity against NCI-H23 cell line. Conclusions : BPG produced by new manufacturing is more effective than BPG produced by existing processing in anticancer activity. And new BPG has a possibility of investigation because of high contents of Rg3, Rk1 and Rg5 that have various phisological activities.

• Preventive Nutrition and Food Science
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• v.15 no.2
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• pp.88-91
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• 2010

This study examined the effects of Korean red ginseng (RG) on muscle injury induced by eccentric exercise. Eighteen college male students were randomly assigned to either the RG group or the placebo group (P). The RG group ingested RG extract at 20 g/day (mixed with 200 mL of water) for 7 days prior to performing a downhill treadmill exercise and for 3 days after performing the downhill treadmill exercise, while the P group ingested 200 mL of water containing Agastachis Herba for 7 days prior to and 3 days following a downhill treadmill exercise. All subjects performed 2 bouts of a downhill treadmill exercise (6 km, -14 degree slope, 12 km/hr speed) with a 5 minute resting interval between bouts. Blood samples were drawn immediately before and after exercise, and at 1 hr, 24 hr, 48 hr, and 72 hr. Two-way repeated ANOVA documented that creatine kinase (CK) levels in the RG group were significantly reduced at 48 hr after exercise, as compared with P group, and remained constant until 72 hr after exercise. Lactate levels in the RG group were also significantly lower at 24 hr and 72 hr after exercise as compared to the P group. We conclude that supplementation of RGreduces CK levels and may prevent muscle injury induced by eccentric exercise.

• Journal of Ginseng Research
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• v.45 no.6
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• pp.706-716
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• 2021

Background: Irritable bowel syndrome (IBS), the most common functional gastrointestinal disorder, is characterized by chronic abdominal pain and bowel habit changes. Although diverse complicated etiologies are involved in its pathogenesis, a dysregulated gut-brain axis may be an important factor. Red ginseng (RG), a traditional herbal medicine, is proven to have anti-inflammatory effects and improve brain function; however, these effects have not been investigated in IBS. Methods: Three-day intracolonic zymosan injections were used to induce post-infectious human IBS-like symptoms in mice. The animals were randomized to receive either phosphate-buffered saline (CG) or RG (30/100/300 mg/kg) for 10 days. Amitriptyline and sulfasalazine were used as positive controls. Macroscopic scoring was performed on day 4. Visceral pain and anxiety-like behaviors were assessed by colorectal distension and elevated plus maze and open field tests, respectively, on day 10. Next-generation sequencing of gut microbiota was performed, and biomarkers involved in gut-brain axis responses were analyzed. Results: Compared to CG, RG significantly decreased the macroscopic score, frequency of visceral pain, and anxiety-like behavior in the IBS mice. These effects were comparable to those after sulfasalazine and amitriptyline treatments. Moreover, RG significantly increased the proliferation of beneficial microbes, including Lactobacillus johnsonii, Lactobacillus reuteri, and Parabacteroides goldsteinii. RG significantly suppressed expression of IL-1β and c-fos in the gut and prefrontal cortex, respectively. Further, it restored the plasma levels of corticosterone to within the normal range, accompanied by an increase in adrenocorticotropic hormone. Conclusion: RG may be a potential therapeutic option for the management of human IBS.

• Journal of Ginseng Research
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• v.46 no.2
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• pp.266-274
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• 2022

Colon cancer, the third most frequent occurred cancer, has high mortality and extremely poor prognosis. Ginsenoside, the active components of traditional Chinese herbal medicine Panax ginseng, exerts antitumor effect in various cancers, including colon cancer. However, the detailed molecular mechanism of Ginsenoside in the tumor suppression have not been fully elucidated. Here, we chose the representative ginsenoside Rg3 and reported for the first time that Rg3 induces mitophagy in human colon cancer cells, which is responsible for its anticancer effect. Rg3 treatment leads to mitochondria damage and the formation of mitophagosome; when autophagy is inhibited, the clearance of damaged mitochondria can be reversed. Next, our results showed that Rg3 treatment activates the PINK1-Parkin signaling pathway and recruits Parkin and ubiquitin proteins to mitochondria to induce mitophagy. GO analysis of Parkin targets showed that Parkin interacts with a large number of mitochondrial proteins and regulates the molecular function of mitochondria. The cellular energy metabolism enzyme GAPDH is validated as a novel substrate of Parkin, which is ubiquitinated by Parkin. Moreover, GAPDH participates in the Rg3-induced mitophagy and regulates the translocation of Parkin to mitochondria. Functionally, Rg3 exerts the inhibitory effect through regulating the nonglycolytic activity of GAPDH, which could be associated with the cellular oxidative stress. Thus, our results revealed GAPDH ubiquitination by Parkin as a crucial mechanism for mitophagy induction that contributes to the tumor-suppressive function of ginsenoside, which could be a novel treatment strategy for colon cancer.

• Applied Biological Chemistry
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• v.25 no.4
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• pp.211-217
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• 1982

Ginsenosides in epidermis·cortex(EC) and xylem-pith(XP) of main body of Panax ginseng(var. atropurpureacaulo) root were investigated in relation to dark purple area on stem. Pattern of ginsenosides, ratio of protopanaxatriol(PT) to diol(PD) and total ginsenoside content were significantly different between EC ana XP, and not related with stem color. The increasing trend of total ginsenosides with decreasing in purple area on stem needs to be tested with greater sample size. The order of ginsenoside content was $Rb_1>Rg_1>Re>Rc>Rg_2>Rb_2>Rf>Rd$ for EC, $Rg_1>Rb_1>Rg_2>Re>Rb_2>Rc>Rf>Rd$ for XP. PT/PD was 1.08 for EC,1.95 for XP. Since total ginsenoside content was 3 times higher in EC than in XP and weight of two parts was almost same, the content of ginsenosides of main body mostly depends on those of EC.