• Journal of Nutrition and Health
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• v.29 no.9
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• pp.1021-1027
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• 1996

This study examined the patterns of nutrient intakes measured by 1-, 3-, 7-day recalls and records as well as food frequency questionnaire among 59 females volunteers enrolled in the university in Seoul, Korea. Over a 4 month period, a modified Willett food frequency questionnaire was administered once, and a 24-hour dietary recall was conducted 12 times and a weighted dietary record 14 times. From these 12 recalls and 14 records, 1-, 3-, 7-day data were randomly selected. For energy and 11 nutrients, group mean intakes derived from food frequency questionnaire were higher than from recalls and records. Group mean intakes from recalls and records showed little differences depending on days of dietary studies and dietary methods. Measures of agreement were calculated by weighted kappa and intraclass correlation coefficient values calculated for quintile categories while comparing to the results of 26 days recalls and records. Weighted kappa values ranged from 0.11 for riboflavin to 0.36 for vitamin C for and 1-day recall, and from 0.21 for iron to 0.31 for energy for the 1-day record. Weighted kappa values were increased as the number of days of dietary studies increased (0.34-0.57 for the 3-day recalls, 0.27-0.50 for the 3-day records, 0.50-0.68 for the 7-day recalls, and 0.50-0.65 for the 7-day records). Weighted kappa values for food frequency questionnaire were higher than the 1-day data, but lower than the 3-and-7day data(0.34 for energy, 0.31 for iron and 0.22 for vitamin C). Intraclass correlation coefficients ranged from 0.21 for vitamin A to 0.57 for calcium. The degrees of agreement by different methods and days of dietary study are lower in our study compared to agreement by different methods and days of dietary study are lower in our study compared to those in previously published studies for Western populations, partly due to the differences of data analysis methods as well as of dietary patterns between those samples and ours.

• Journal of Nutrition and Health
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• v.29 no.9
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• pp.1028-1034
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• 1996

This study examined within-and between-individual variation in nutrient intakes in order to estimate the degrees of precison in dietary assessment among 59 female volunteers aged 21-23 years. Self-recorded 7-day dietary recalls and records were collected by during a 3 month period. Between the recall and record methods, there were little difference of within-and between-individual variations. Within-to-between individual variation ratios were > 2.0 for most of the nutrients examined, and were higher for niacin, vitamin A and C (>2.5) in the recals and for calcium, iron, vitamin A and C(>3.0) in the records. With 7-day dietary data, observed nutrient intakes were estimated to within 26-107% of the subjects' true(usual) intakes, among those vitamin C and energy showed the highest and lowest values, respectively. Correlation coefficients between observed and true nutrient intakes were 0.73-0.81 for the recalls and 0.68-0.77 for the records. In order to estimate with 20% precision, 12-13 days of dietary study were required for energy, 46 for calcium, 71-72 for vitamin A, and 199-200 for vitamin C. Attenuation factor ranged 0.73-0.81 for the recalls and 0.68-0.77 for the records. This study implies that commonly used 1 or 3 day dietary studies may not be appropriate for assessing individuals' nutrient intakes. Further research focusing on the methodological issues in the assessment of Korean diet are needed for between understanding of the relationship between diet and health in Koreans.

• Journal of the Korean Society of Food Culture
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• v.12 no.2
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• pp.137-147
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• 1997

The purpose of this study was to determine the influences on physical status and study achievement by the dietary behavior of the youth in Korea. The survey was carried from June to July, 1995 by way of questionnaire to 397 students. The students' study achievement records and physical status were analyzed by the factor of dietary behavior. The results were as follows: 1 The average physical status of male students was lean, but females were standard. 76ft of mothers of the subjects were working in specialty farming. The monthly income of their family was $1000{\sim}1500$ thousand Won and students' pocket money was $20{\sim}40$ thousand Won per month. 2. The aspects of meal behavior included the general idea that the meal was thought to relieve hunger, and preference of taste was spiciness The most important factor of the meals for the students was taste. Their bad meal habits were quick eating and irregularity of meals. 3. There was a significant difference in the comparison of the study achieving records with the frequency of supper However, there was no one meaningful difference between study achievement records and the attendance rate to school, health status, and living conditions. However, there was a significant difference between their study records and eating with family. The students, who had the breakfast and/or supper with family, remarked better study records than other groups. 4. Also, there was a significant difference of study records with physical status. The overweight or obese students had a lower degree of study score (p<0.1). Adolescence is considered a period of setting up dietary behavior, so it is necessary to educate good nutrition and dietary habits for students to keep in healthy physical condition and with high study achievements.

• Journal of Preventive Medicine and Public Health
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• v.40 no.1
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• pp.45-50
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• 2007

Objectives : The aim of this study was to investigate the relationship between the contributions of macronutrients to the total energy intakes and Body Mass Indices (BMI, $kg/m^2$) of Korean women. Methods : We used dietary records data from 115 healthy Korean women, ages 20 and over, who completed four 3-day dietary records between February 2003 and March 2004. For the calculation of nutrients we used a dietary assessment program developed by the Korean Nutritional Society. Macronutrient intakes were estimated by averaging individual total daily intakes in four 3-day dietary records. Subjects were categorized into three Body Mass Index (BMI) groups : underweight (BMI < 20), normal (20 $\leq$ BMI < 25), and overweight (BMI $\geq$ 25) group. Results : The total energy intakes were not different among the three BMI groups. Similarly, other macronutrient intakes such as protein, fat, carbohydrate, vegetable protein, animal protein, saturated fatty acids, monounsaturated fatty acids, and polyunsaturated fatty acids were not different. From the multivariate nutrient density model, substituting polyunsaturated fatty acid for carbohydrate was positively associated with BMI in women aged 20 to 49 ($\beta=2.31$, p<0.01). In women aged 50 and over, substituting animal protein for carbohydrate was positively associated with BMI ($\beta=0.549$, p=0.04). Conclusions : No single macronutrient was associated with BMI when all subjects were combined. However, when stratified by age, polyunsaturated fatty acid intake in younger women, and animal protein intake in older women, were positively associated with BMI. In the future, we recommend a larger study to confirm these results.

• The Korean Journal of Community Living Science
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• v.16 no.4
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• pp.115-123
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• 2005

This study was performed to compare dietary behaviors based on residence types of female college students. Self reports on dietary behavior and one-day dietary records were obtained from 227 female college students using anonymous questionnaires. The mean age of the subjects was $20.4{\pm}1.43$, and the height and weight were $162.5{\pm}4.8cm$ and $52.3{\pm}7.9kg$, respectively, The dietary behavior of female college students was inadequate, showing indifference to dietary balance, irregularity of meals, skipping breakfast, and high experience of drinking. One-day dietary records were obtained from 24k recall methods also showed a high number registering skipped meal status ($55.3\%$) and less diverse food intake (DVS, 12.5; DDS, 3.93). The students in self boarding residence were especially more likely not to eat properly and their dietary behaviors were found to be significantly poor. In the case of home residence, food intake frequency scores for milk and dairy products, fruits, and fishes were significantly higher, however the students in self boarding residences showed high food intake frequency scores in salted food, retort food, canned food, and especially instant ramyun. Therefore, more attention needs to be given to them to recognize the problems in their own dietary behaviors and more practical nutritional supports, like developing a menu for breakfast in college cafeterias, would be helpful to improve their dietary choices.

• The Korean Journal of Community Living Science
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• v.15 no.4
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• pp.79-88
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• 2004

The purpose of this study was to compare the dietary behavior of middle school and high school students who had working mothers with students whose mothers were not employed. Self-reports on their dietary behavior and one-day dietary records were obtained from 396 middle school students and 364 high school students using anonymous questionnaires. The results were summarized as follows; the students with working mothers were more likely to not to eat properly and their dietary behavior was generally inadequate, showing a greater irregularity for meals, more of a tendency to skip breakfast, less diversity of food intake, and a higher incidence of drinking and smoking. One-day dietary records obtained by 24k recall methods showed less diverse food intake and a higher rate of skipped meals in students with working mothers. Drinking and smoking were more prevalent among middle school students whose mothers were working than among those students with unemployed mothers, but in the case of high school student the difference was not significant. With more and more housewives seeking jobs, more attention needs to be given to the dietary and nutritional intake of their children, especially among middle school students. High school students seem to be less affected than middle school students by their mother's employment.

• Journal of Nutrition and Health
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• v.43 no.1
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• pp.79-85
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• 2010

This study assesses the sodium intake of adults by 24-hour urine analysis, dietary records review and a food intake questionnaire. Subjects were 236 adult female in Daegu. The results are summarized as follows: Sodium intake as indicated by the 24-hour urine analysis was $5,805.4\;{\pm}\;3836.8\;mg$. This was significantly higher than intake indicated by dietary records ($4415.4\;{\pm}\;1935.1\;mg$) and the dish frequency questionnaire (DFQ 55) ($4293.5\;{\pm}\;1526.5\;mg$). The results of the 24-hour urine analysis and DFQ 55 showed that sodium intake was higher for the 65-to-74-year-old age group than for other age groups (p < 0.05, p < 0.05). Review of dietary records to examine typical sodium intake by food groups showed that 53.7% of the sodium consumed by subjects in all age groups came from seasonings and spices ($2399.0\;{\pm}\;1526.5\;mg$). The analysis of sodium intake by food groups using DFQ 55 showed 34.2% of their sodium came from consumption of kimchi (p < 0.001) and kimch, soup, stew and fish jorim accounted for 57.8% of total sodium intake. The results indicate positive correlation between age and sodium intake, as shown by the 24-hour urine analysis and food intake questionnaire (p < 0.05). Therefore, these results would be valuable as basic data for planning nutrition education for sodium intake reduction.

• The Korean Journal of Food And Nutrition
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• v.11 no.6
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• pp.647-686
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• 1998

The purpose of this study was to investigate selected nutrient intakes, dietary atherogenesity, energy balance and activity level of college students. One hundred and thirty onoe students (61 males and 70 females) made their three-day dietary records and one-day activity records along with one-day dietary records. BMI of the surveyed students was 22.33 for males and 20.28 for females. Average calorie intakes of male and female students was respectively 2166.20kcal and 1793.60kcal. Females had slightly higher fiber intakes than males in terms of fiber g/1000kcal. Carbohydrate, protein and fat ratios in energy composition of males and females were respectively 56.62 : 15.33 : 24.70 and 57.64 : 16.49 : 25.79. Average cholesterol intakes of male and female students were 295.66mg and 259mg respectively. The male showed higher saturated fat intake. and had higher atherogenic indices of diets such as cholesterol index(CI) and cholesterol-saturated fat index(CSI) than the female. Males spent an average of 1039.00 kcal/day compared to females of 687.93 kcal/day for all physical activities. Most students participated in light (100% of males and females) and moderate (33% of males and 3% of females) activities level. Few students spent time at severe and very severe activity level. Seventeen of the 131 students were in positive energy balance whereas 83% were in negative balance. Both genders with positive energy balance tended towards smaller weight and BMI, and larger food intakes than those with negative energy balance. Students with positive energy balance had higher saturated fat intakes and dietary atherogenic scores of CI and CSI than the counterparts with negative energy balance. Males with positive energy balance had decreased physical activity and daily energy expenditure whereas increased food and saturated fat intakes. Females with positive energy balance had singificantly increased food, saturated fat and sugar intakes.

• Journal of Nutrition and Health
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• v.37 no.5
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• pp.373-384
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• 2004

The objectives of this study were to identify dietary patterns of Korean middle school students and to investigate the characteristics of dietary intake of subjects with different dietary pattern. Three-day diet records were obtained from 163 male and 155 female 7th graders in Seoul, Korea. Food items from the diet records were aggregated into 22 food groups before subjected to factor analysis. Four dietary patterns emerged from factor analysis with different factor score. Cluster analysis using factor score classified subjects into three groups named 'Traditional' (n = 42), 'Westernized' (n = 135), and 'Intermediate' (n = 145). Major nutrient intake and dietary quality assessed by NAR (Nutrients Adequacy Ratio), MAR (Mean Adequacy Ratio), DDS (Dietary Diversity Score), and DVS (Dietary Variety Score) of the three groups were compared. Mean energy intakes of three groups were 1783, 1916, 1578 kcal in Traditional, Westernized, and Intermediate diet group respectively. Differences in nutrient intake of the groups were significant in all nutrients except vitamin B$_1$. Percent energy from fat was significantly higher in Westernized and Intermediate diet group, and cholesterol intake of Westernized diet group was higher than 300mg. NARs of most nutrients were higher in Traditional and Westernized than Intermediate diet group except vitamin E. Traditional and Westernized diet groups had the highest MAR of fourteen nutrients. DDS was the highest in Westernized and DVS was the highest in Traditional and Westernized diet group. Traditional diet groups had 22％ of energy consumption from breakfast, significantly higher than other diet groups. In conclusion, these results suggest that Korean teenagers with Traditional diet pattern have lower diet in ％ energy from fat, diversity of food and regularity of meals. Future studies need to focus on the relationship between dietary patterns and health status of Korean teenagers.

• The Korean Journal of Community Living Science
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• v.17 no.3
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• pp.99-107
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• 2006

This study was performed to investigate the dietary habit based on residence types of male college students who registered nutrition course for nonmajor. Self reports on dietary habit and one-day dietary records were obtained from 158 male college students in Chungbuk area. The distribution of residence type of male college student was as follows; self-boarding(43.0%), home(41.1%), boarding with meal(12.7%), and others(3.2%). The mean age of subjects were $22.6{\pm}2.5$, and the mean height and weight were $175.0{\pm}5.6cm\;and\;69.1{\pm}9.3kg$, respectively. The dietary habit of male college students considered to be taken more care of, showing indifference to dietary balance, irregularity of meal, and skipping breakfast. One-day dietary records by 24hr recall methods also showed less diverse food intake(mean DVS, 12.7; mean DDS, 3.92). Especially, the students with self boarding residence were more likely not to eat properly, including indifference to dietary balance, irregularity of meal, skipping breakfast, frequent dining-out, high experience of smoking and drinking, and low DVS and DDS. Also the students with self boarding residence seemed not to make a good choice for food, showing high food intake frequency score in canned food, fast food and instant ramyun, while low score in fruit and fishes. More attention should be taken for self-boarding students to recognize the problems in their own dietary behavior, and more practical suggestion to improve their dietary status would be necessary.