• The Sea:JOURNAL OF THE KOREAN SOCIETY OF OCEANOGRAPHY
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• v.16 no.3
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• pp.147-154
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• 2011

Decision making in Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) and Consultation on the Coastal Area Utilization (CCAU) is footing on the survey reports, thus requires concrete and accurate information on the natural habitats. In spite of the importance of reporting the ecological quality and status of habitats, the accumulated knowledge and recent techniques in ecology such as the use of investigated cases and indicators/indices have not been utilized in evaluation processes. Even the EIA report does not contain sufficient information required in a decision making process for conservation and development. In addition, for CCAU, sampling efforts were so limited that only two or a few stations were set in most study cases. This hampers transferring key ecological information to both specialist review and decision making processes. Hence, setting the effective number of sampling stations can be said as a prior step for better assessment. We introduced a few statistical techniques to determine the number of sampling stations in macrobenthos surveys. However, the application of the techniques requires a preliminary study that cannot be performed under the current assessment frame. An analysis of the spatial configuration of sampling stations from 19 previous studies was carried out as an alternative approach, based on the assumption that those configurations reported in scientific journal contribute to successful understanding of the ecological phenomena. The distance between stations and number of sampling stations in a $4{\times}4$ km unit area were calculated, and the medians of each parameter were 2.3 km, and 3, respectively. For each study, approximated survey area (ASA, $km^2$) was obtained by using the number of sampling stations in a unit area (NSSU) and total number of sampling stations (TNSS). To predict either appropriate ASA or NSSU/TNSS, we found and suggested statistically significant functional relationship among ASA, survey purpose and NSSU. This empirical approach will contribute to increasing sampling effort in a field survey and communicating with reasonable data and information in EIA and CCAU.

• Korean Journal of Soil Science and Fertilizer
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• v.32 no.4
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• pp.383-397
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• 1999

For sites to be investigated, the results of such an investigation can be used in determining foals for cleanup, quantifying risks, determining acceptable and unacceptable risk, and developing cleanup plans t hat do not cause unnecessary delays in the redevelopment and reuse of the property. To do this, it is essential that an appropriately detailed study of the site be performed to identify the cause, nature, and extent of contamination and the possible threats to the environment or to any people living or working nearby through the analysis of samples of soil and soil gas, groundwater, surface water, and sediment. The migration pathways of contaminants also are examined during this phase. Key aspects of cost-effective site assessment to help standardize and accelerate the evaluation of contaminated soils at sites are to provide a simple step-by-step methodology for environmental science/engineering professionals to calculate risk-based, site-specific soil levels for contaminants in soil. Its use may significantly reduce the time it takes to complete soil investigations and cleanup actions at some sites, as well as improve the consistency of these actions across the nation. To achieve the effective site assessment, it requires the criteria for choosing the type of standard and setting the magnitude of the standard come from different sources, depending on many factors including the nature of the contamination. A general scheme for site-specific assessment consists of sequential Phase I, II, and III, which is defined by workplan and soil screening levels. Phase I are conducted to identify and confirm a site's recognized environmental conditions resulting from past actions. If a Phase 1 identifies potential hazardous substances, a Phase II is usually conducted to confirm the absence, or presence and extent, of contamination. Phase II involve the collection and analysis of samples. And Phase III is to remediate the contaminated soils determined by Phase I and Phase II. However, important factors in determining whether a assessment standard is site-specific and suitable are (1) the spatial extent of the sampling and the size of the sample area; (2) the number of samples taken: (3) the strategy of taking samples: and (4) the way the data are analyzed. Although selected methods are recommended, application of quantitative methods is directed by users having prior training or experience for the dynamic site investigation process.

• Korean Journal of Plant Taxonomy
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• v.51 no.3
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• pp.250-293
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• 2021

Limestone areas are sedimentary rock outcrops consisting of calcium carbonate created several hundreds of millions of years ago by calcium-secreting marine organisms and subsequently lifted above sea level by tectonic movement. Limestone areas support very high levels of endemic species of plants and are recognized as biodiversity areas with much biological information. The purpose of this study is to devise a strategy for the comprehensive conservation of the vegetation of limestone areas through analyses of the floristics and plant species compositions in ten limestone areas on the Korean Peninsula. The results of 153 field surveys from April of 2010 to October of 2016 identified 1,202 taxa in total, representing 1,096 species, 18 subspecies, 84 varieties, 2 forms, and 2 hybrids in 530 genera and 133 families. Among them, 55 taxa were endemic plants to Korea, and 38 taxa were red data plants. The floristic target plants amounted to 102 taxa, specifically 27 taxa of grade V and 75 taxa of grade IV. In all, 121 alien plants were recorded in the investigated area. Calciphilous plants amounted to 102 taxa, specifically 14 taxa of calciphilous indicator plants, 30 taxa of superlative most calciphilous plants, and 58 taxa of comparative more calciphilous plants. A cluster analysis showed a high degree of similarity between sites that are geographically adjacent with similar habitat environments. Limestone areas also supported groups distinct from those in non-limestone areas, demonstrating the specificity of limestone flora. Plant geography approaches therefore appear to be crucial to gain a better understanding of the level of biodiversity in limestone areas, not only at the interspecific but also at the intraspecific level. These results highlight the importance of protecting limestone habitats to preserve not only their interspecific but also the intraspecific diversity, which is highly threatened.

• Korean Journal of Heritage: History & Science
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• v.44 no.1
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• pp.162-181
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• 2011

The purpose of this study was to analyze the current status of both exotic and naturalized plants in the designated Cultural Preservation Area located in Seongju-gun, Gyeongsangbuk-do in order to identify traditional cultural places and to provide basic information to prepare a conservation strategy. The vascular plant species was identified as having 114 taxa: 50 families, 93 genera, 94 species, 16 varieties and 4 forms in King Sejong's Prince Taesil. Among them are 15 taxa of the exotic plant species and 16 taxa of naturalized plant species, which resulted in 14.04% of the Naturalization Rate and 5.90% of the Urbanization Index. The vascular plant species was identified as 68 taxa: 40 families, 64 genus, 57 species, 8 varieties and 4 forms in the Seongju Hyanggyo. Among them, the exotic plants recorded 17 taxa with 30 taxa of naturalized plants. The Naturalization Rate was 44.12% and Urbanization Index was 11.07%. The Seongbaksup, which was a grove outside of the Seongju Fortress recorded 61 taxa: 34 families, 58 genera, 55 species, 5 varieties and 1 form. Among them, the exotic plant species consisted of 10 taxa with 17 taxa of naturalized plants, with a 27.87% Naturalization Rate and a 6.27% Urbanization Index. The vascular plant species was recorded as 230 taxa: 92 families, 183 genus, 182 species, 1 subspecies, 32 varieties and 14 forms in Hangae Village. Among them, exotic plants consist of 28 taxa with 85 naturalized plant species, with a Naturalization Rate of 37.12% and Urbanization Index of 31.37%. The vascular plant species in the Seongsan Ancient Tomb is recorded as having 131 taxa: 55 families, 107 genus, 106 species 19 varieties and 6 forms. Among them, exotic plants consist of 18 classifications, and naturalized plants consist of 22 classifications with a Naturalization Rate of 16.79% and an Urbanization Index of 8.12%. The Seongju Hangyo recorded the highest Naturalization Rate among all surveyed sites in Hangae Village. All five of these surveyed sites will require a management plan to eradicate both exotic and naturalized plant species. Hangae Village especially needs to prepare a management plan. The invasion of ragweed in Seongju Hanggyo and Hangae Village, which is one of the most invasive plant species to disturb the ecosystem, is in need of management to eradicate it.

• Korean Journal of Heritage: History & Science
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• v.43 no.1
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• pp.56-85
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• 2010

UNESCO World Heritage Programme was introduced following the adoption of Convention Concerning the Protection of the World Cultural and Natural Heritage by the General Conference of UNESCO in 1972 in order to protect cultural and natural heritage with superb value for all mankind. Despite its short history of less than 40 years, it has been evaluated as one of the most successful of the cultural area projects of UNESCO with 890 world heritage registered worldwide. For systematic protection management of World Heritage, UNESCO, through systemization of registration, emphasis on the importance of preservation management plan, institutionalization of monitoring, and operation of World Heritage Fund, has utilized World Heritage Programme not just as a means of listing excellent cultural properties, but as a preservation planning tool, and accordingly, such policies have had a significant influence on the cultural heritage protection legislations of numerous nations. Korea has ratified World Heritage Convention in 1988, and with the registration of the Royal Tombs of the Joseon Dynasty in 2009, it has 9 World Heritage Sites. Twenty years have passed since Korea joined the World Heritage Programme. While World Heritage registration contributed to publicity of the uniqueness and excellence of Korean cultural properties and improvement of Korea's national culture status, it is now time to devise various legislative/systematic improvement means to reconsider the World Heritage registration strategy and establish a systematic preservation management system. While up until now, the Cultural Properties Protection Law has been amended to arrange for basic rules regarding registration and protection of World Heritage Sites, and some local governments have founded bodies exclusive for World Heritage Site management, a more fundamental and macroscopic plan for World Heritage policy improvement must be sought. Projects and programs in each area for reinforcement of World Heritage policy capacity such as: 1) Enactment of a special law for World Heritage Site preservation management; 2) enactment of ordinances for protection of World Heritage Sites per each local government; 3) reinforcement of policies and management functionality of Cultural Heritage Administration and local governments; 4) dramatic increase in the finances of World Heritage Site protection; 5) requirement to establish plan for World Heritage Site preservation protection; 6) increased support for utilization of World Heritage Sites; 7) substantiation and diversification of World Heritage registration; 8) sharing of information and experiences of World Heritage Sites management among local governments; 9) installation of World Heritage Sites integral archive; 10) revitalization of citizen cooperation and resident participation; 11) training specialized resources for World Heritage Sites protection; 12) revitalization of sustainable World Heritage Sites tourism, must be selected and promoted systematically. Regarding how World Heritage Programme should be domestically accepted and developed, the methods for systemization, scientific approach, and specialization of World Heritage policies were suggested per type. In the future, in-depth and specialized researches and studies should follow.

• Journal of Environmental Impact Assessment
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• v.31 no.6
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• pp.388-408
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• 2022

This study was conducted to select the indicator species (plant) according to the topographical characteristics in the Picea jezoensis forests, endangered subalpine coniferous trees. In South Korea and China (close to Baekdusan), the southern tree line limit of Picea jezoensis has meaningful geographical and latitudinal values for analyzing the ecological characteristics of P. jezoensis forests. Latitude greatly affects the geographical values of plant ecology, and the difference in latitude and habitat affects the change in species composition in forests. With prolonged environmental change, the habitat of subalpine plants will become smaller, and the plants may become extinct. As the P. jezoensis forests of South Korea and China, in particular, are in danger of disappearing without protection, it is important to monitor the population and develop a conservation strategy. Eighty-seven circular plots were established in P. jezoensis forests in South Korea and China. Through processes such as MRPP-test and NMS ordination, indicator species were selected based on this, and basic data for biodiversity assessment were presented. As a result of the Indicator Species Analysis (ISA), 5 taxa were selected from the upperstory vegetation and 18 taxa from the understory vegetation at the altitude(p<0.05). Indicator species by aspect were analyzed as 3 taxa for upperstory vegetation and 16 taxa for understory vegetation (p<0.05). In the case of indicator species according to the slope, 6 taxa for upper vegetation and 24 taxa for understory vegetation were selected(p<0.05). As for the indicator species according to their habitat, 8 taxa in upper vegetation and 65 taxa on understory vegetation were selected. As a result of MRPP-test, it was analyzed that the species composition was heterogeneous in the group of understory vegetation than that of upperstory vegetation. As a result of NMS ordination, the correlation with environmental factors of indicator species was analyzed by rock exposure for upperstory vegetation and latitude for understory vegetation (cut off level=0.3).

• Korean Journal of Environment and Ecology
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• v.36 no.3
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• pp.303-317
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• 2022

Climate change caused by increased greenhouse gas emissions can alter the natural ecosystem, including the pollination ecosystem and agricultural ecology, which are ecological interactions between potted insects and plants. Many studies have reported that populations of wild bees, including bees and wasps (BW), which are the key pollinators, have gradually declined due to climate change, leading to adverse impacts on overall biodiversity, ultimately with agribusinesses and the life cycle of flowering plants. Therefore, we could infer that the rising temperature in Korean Peninsula (South Korea) due to global warming has led to climate change and influenced the wild bee's ecosystem. In this study, we surveyed the distributional pattern of BW (Superfamily: Apoidea, Vespoidea, and Chrysidoidea) at 51 sites from 2017 (37 sites) to 2018 (14 sites) to examine the effects of climatic factors on the nationwide distribution of BW in South Korea. Previous literature has confirmed that their distribution according to forest climate zones is significantly correlated with mean and accumulative temperatures. Based on the result, we predicted the effects of future climate changes on the BW distribution that appeared throughout South Korea and the species that appeared in specific climate zones using Shared Socioeconomic Pathways (SSPs). The distributions of wild BW predicted by the SSP scenarios 2-4.5 and 5-8.5 according to the BIOMOD species distribution model revealed that common and endemic species will shift northward from the current habitat distribution by 2050 and 2100, respectively. Our study implies that climate change and its detrimental effect on the ecosystem is ongoing as the BW distribution in South Korea can change, causing the change in the ecosystem in the Korean Peninsula. Therefore, immediate efforts to mitigate greenhouse gas emissions are warranted. We hope the findings of this study can inspire further research on the effects of climate change on pollination services and serve as the reference for making agricultural policy and BW conservation strategy

• Journal of the Korean Institute of Traditional Landscape Architecture
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• v.32 no.1
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• pp.93-106
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• 2014

In this study, Analyze environment of location, investigation into vegetation resources, survey management status and establish to classify the management area for Natural monument No.374 Pyengdae-ri Torreya nucifera forest. The results were as follows: First, Torreya nucifera forest is concerned about influence of development caused by utilization of land changes to agricultural region. Thus, establish to preservation management plan for preservation of prototypical and should be excluded development activity to cause the change of terrain that Gotjawal in the Torreya nucifera forest is factor of base for generating species diversity. Secondly, Torreya nucifera forest summarized as 402 taxa composed 91 familly 263 genus, 353 species, 41 varieties and 8 forms. The distribution of plants for the first grade & second grade appear of endangered plant to Ministry of Environment specify. But, critically endangered in forest by changes in habitat, diseases and illegal overcatching. Therefore, when establishing forest management plan should be considered for put priority on protection. Thirdly, Torreya nucifera representing the upper layer of the vegetation structure. But, old tree oriented management and conservation strategy result in poor age structure. Furthermore, desiccation of forest on artificial management and decline in Torreya nucifera habitat on ecological succession can indicate a problem in forest. Therefore, establish plan such as regulation of population density and sapling tree proliferation for sustainable characteristics of the Torreya nucifera forest. Fourth, Appear to damaged of trails caused by use. Especially, Scoria way occurs a lot of damaged and higher than the share ratio of each section. Therefore, share ratio reduction Plan should be considered through the additional development of tourism routes rather than the replacement of Scoria. Fifth, Representing high preference of the Torreya nucifera forest tourist factor confirmed the plant elements. It is sensitive to usage pressure. And requires continuous monitoring by characteristic of Non-permanent. In addition, need an additional plan such as additional development of tourism elements and active utilizing an element of high preference. Sixth, Strength of protected should be differently accordance with importance. First grade area have to maintenance of plant population and natural habitats. Set the direction of the management. Second grade areas focus on annual regeneration of the forest. Third grade area should be utilized demonstration forest or set to the area for proliferate sapling. Fourth grade areas require the introduced of partial rest system that disturbance are often found in proper vegetation. Fifth grade area appropriate to the service area for promoting tourism by utilizing natural resources in Torreya nucifera forest. Furthermore, installation of a buffer zone in relatively low ratings area and periodic monitoring to the improvement of edge effect that adjacent areas of different class.

• Journal of Bio-Environment Control
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• v.5 no.2
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• pp.215-235
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• 1996

The thermal analysis by mathematical model simulation makes it possible to reasonably predict heating and/or cooling requirements of certain greenhouses located under various geographical and climatic environment. It is another advantages of model simulation technique to be able to make it possible to select appropriate heating system, to set up energy utilization strategy, to schedule seasonal crop pattern, as well as to determine new greenhouse ranges. In this study, the control pattern for greenhouse microclimate is categorized as cooling and heating. Dynamic model was adopted to simulate heating requirements and/or energy conservation effectiveness such as energy saving by night-time thermal curtain, estimation of Heating Degree-Hours(HDH), long time prediction of greenhouse thermal behavior, etc. On the other hand, the cooling effects of ventilation, shading, and pad ||||&|||| fan system were partly analyzed by static model. By the experimental work with small size model greenhouse of 1.2m$\times$2.4m, it was found that cooling the greenhouse by spraying cold water directly on greenhouse cover surface or by recirculating cold water through heat exchangers would be effective in greenhouse summer cooling. The mathematical model developed for greenhouse model simulation is highly applicable because it can reflects various climatic factors like temperature, humidity, beam and diffuse solar radiation, wind velocity, etc. This model was closely verified by various weather data obtained through long period greenhouse experiment. Most of the materials relating with greenhouse heating or cooling components were obtained from model greenhouse simulated mathematically by using typical year(1987) data of Jinju Gyeongnam. But some of the materials relating with greenhouse cooling was obtained by performing model experiments which include analyzing cooling effect of water sprayed directly on greenhouse roof surface. The results are summarized as follows : 1. The heating requirements of model greenhouse were highly related with the minimum temperature set for given greenhouse. The setting temperature at night-time is much more influential on heating energy requirement than that at day-time. Therefore It is highly recommended that night- time setting temperature should be carefully determined and controlled. 2. The HDH data obtained by conventional method were estimated on the basis of considerably long term average weather temperature together with the standard base temperature(usually 18.3$^{\circ}C$). This kind of data can merely be used as a relative comparison criteria about heating load, but is not applicable in the calculation of greenhouse heating requirements because of the limited consideration of climatic factors and inappropriate base temperature. By comparing the HDM data with the results of simulation, it is found that the heating system design by HDH data will probably overshoot the actual heating requirement. 3. The energy saving effect of night-time thermal curtain as well as estimated heating requirement is found to be sensitively related with weather condition: Thermal curtain adopted for simulation showed high effectiveness in energy saving which amounts to more than 50% of annual heating requirement. 4. The ventilation performances doting warm seasons are mainly influenced by air exchange rate even though there are some variations depending on greenhouse structural difference, weather and cropping conditions. For air exchanges above 1 volume per minute, the reduction rate of temperature rise on both types of considered greenhouse becomes modest with the additional increase of ventilation capacity. Therefore the desirable ventilation capacity is assumed to be 1 air change per minute, which is the recommended ventilation rate in common greenhouse. 5. In glass covered greenhouse with full production, under clear weather of 50% RH, and continuous 1 air change per minute, the temperature drop in 50% shaded greenhouse and pad ＆ fan systemed greenhouse is 2.6$^{\circ}C$ and.6.1$^{\circ}C$ respectively. The temperature in control greenhouse under continuous air change at this time was 36.6$^{\circ}C$ which was 5.3$^{\circ}C$ above ambient temperature. As a result the greenhouse temperature can be maintained 3$^{\circ}C$ below ambient temperature. But when RH is 80%, it was impossible to drop greenhouse temperature below ambient temperature because possible temperature reduction by pad ||||&|||| fan system at this time is not more than 2.4$^{\circ}C$. 6. During 3 months of hot summer season if the greenhouse is assumed to be cooled only when greenhouse temperature rise above 27$^{\circ}C$, the relationship between RH of ambient air and greenhouse temperature drop($\Delta$T) was formulated as follows : $\Delta$T= -0.077RH＋7.7 7. Time dependent cooling effects performed by operation of each or combination of ventilation, 50% shading, pad ＆ fan of 80% efficiency, were continuously predicted for one typical summer day long. When the greenhouse was cooled only by 1 air change per minute, greenhouse air temperature was 5$^{\circ}C$ above outdoor temperature. Either method alone can not drop greenhouse air temperature below outdoor temperature even under the fully cropped situations. But when both systems were operated together, greenhouse air temperature can be controlled to about 2.0-2.3$^{\circ}C$ below ambient temperature. 8. When the cool water of 6.5-8.5$^{\circ}C$ was sprayed on greenhouse roof surface with the water flow rate of 1.3 liter/min per unit greenhouse floor area, greenhouse air temperature could be dropped down to 16.5-18.$0^{\circ}C$, whlch is about 1$0^{\circ}C$ below the ambient temperature of 26.5-28.$0^{\circ}C$ at that time. The most important thing in cooling greenhouse air effectively with water spray may be obtaining plenty of cool water source like ground water itself or cold water produced by heat-pump. Future work is focused on not only analyzing the feasibility of heat pump operation but also finding the relationships between greenhouse air temperature(T$_{g}$ ), spraying water temperature(T$_{w}$ ), water flow rate(Q), and ambient temperature(T$_{o}$).