• Journal of Life Science
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• v.26 no.4
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• pp.398-405
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• 2016

Statins, the inhibitors of 3-hydroxy 3-methylglutaryl coenzyme A (HMG-CoA) reductase, are widely used in treatments of hypercholesterolemia and newly known as anti-cancer effect of various cancer cells. Recently, several studies suggested that reactive oxygen species (ROS) play a critical role on cell death signaling. However, mechanism of ROS by rosuvastatin is currently unclear. This study aimed to explore the molecular mechanism of apoptosis by rosuvastatin in human prostate cancer PC-3 cells. Cell viability and apoptosis-related protein expression were measured by MTT assay and western blotting, respectively. In addition, the levels of apoptosis and ROS were analyzed. The results showed that rosuvastatin dramatically reduced cell viability in a dose- and time-dependent manner. We confirmed that rosuvastatin induced apoptosis through reduction of procaspase-3 and cleavage of poly (ADP-ribose) polymerase (PARP) in PC-3 cells. In addition, rosuvastatin stimulated ROS production in a dose-dependent manner and pre-treatment with N-acetylcysteine (NAC), a ROS scavenger, significantly recovered rosuvastatin-induced ROS and apoptosis. Thus, we concluded that rosuvastain induces apoptosis through generation of ROS in human prostate cancer PC-3 cells and provides a promising approach to improve the efficacy of cancer therapy.

• Journal of Veterinary Science
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• v.22 no.4
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• pp.55.1-55.17
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• 2021

Background: Naringenin and its glycoside naringin are well known citrus flavonoids with several therapeutic benefits. Although the anti-adipogenic effects of naringenin and naringin have been reported previously, the detailed mechanism underlying their anti-adipogenesis effects is poorly understood. Objectives: This study examined the anti-adipogenic effects of naringenin and naringin by determining differential gene expression patterns in these flavonoids-treated 3T3-L1 adipocytes. Methods: Lipid accumulation and triglyceride (TG) content were determined by Oil red O staining and TG assay. Glucose uptake was measured using a 2-[N-(7-Nitrobenz-2-oxa-1,3-diazol-4-yl)amino]-2-deoxy-d-glucose fluorescent d-glucose analog. The phosphorylation levels of AMP-activated protein kinase (AMPK) and acetyl Co-A carboxylase (ACC) were observed via Western blot analysis. Differential gene expressions in 3T3-L1 adipocytes were evaluated via RNA sequencing analysis. Results: Naringenin and naringin inhibited both lipid accumulation and TG content, increased phosphorylation levels of both AMPK and ACC and decreased the expression level of 3-hydroxy-3-methylglutaryl CoA reductase (HMGCR) in 3T3-L1 adipocytes. RNA sequencing analysis revealed that 32 up-regulated (> 2-fold) and 17 down-regulated (< 0.6-fold) genes related to lipid metabolism, including Acaca, Fasn, Scd1, Mogat1, Dgat, Lipin1, Cpt1a, and Lepr, were normalized to the control level in naringenin-treated adipocytes. In addition, 25 up-regulated (> 2-fold) and 25 down-regulated (< 0.6-fold) genes related to lipid metabolism, including Acaca, Fasn, Fabp5, Scd1, Srebf1, Hmgcs1, Cpt1c, Lepr, and Lrp1, were normalized to the control level by naringin. Conclusions: The results indicate that naringenin and naringin have anti-adipogenic potentials that are achieved by normalizing the expression levels of lipid metabolism-related genes that were perturbed in differentiated 3T3-L1 cells.

• Journal of Microbiology and Biotechnology
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• v.27 no.5
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• pp.956-964
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• 2017

Compactin and pravastatin are competitive cholesterol biosynthesis inhibitors of 3-hydroxy-3-methylglutaryl-CoA reductase and belong to the statin drugs; however, the latter shows superior pharmacokinetic characteristics. Previously, we reported that the bacterial P450, CYP105D7, from Streptomyces avermitilis can catalyze the hydroxylation of 1-deoxypentalenic acid, diclofenac, and naringenin. Here, we demonstrate that CYP105D7 could also catalyze compactin hydroxylation in vitro. In the presence of both bacterial and cyanobacterial redox partner systems with an NADPH regeneration system, the reaction produced two hydroxylated products, including pravastatin (hydroxylated at the C6 position). The steady-state kinetic parameters were measured using the redox partners of putidaredoxin and its reductase. The $k_m$ and $k_{cat}$ values for compactin were $39.1{\pm}8.8{\mu}M$ and $1.12{\pm}0.09min^{-1}$, respectively. The $k_{cat}/K_m$ value for compactin ($0.029min^{-1}{\cdot}{\mu}M^{-1}$) was lower than that for diclofenac ($0.114min^{-1}{\cdot}{\mu}M^{-1}$). Spectroscopic analysis showed that CYP105D7 binds to compactin with a $K_d$ value of $17.5{\pm}3.6{\mu}M$. Molecular docking analysis was performed to build a possible binding model of compactin. Comparisons of different substrates with CYP105D7 were conclusively illustrated for the first time.

• Korean Journal of Clinical Pharmacy
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• v.8 no.2
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• pp.107-112
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• 1998

Lovastatin is a lipid lowering agent for the treatment of hypercholesterolemia and belongs to a new class of pharmacologic compounds called the 3-hydroxy-3-methylglutaryl coenzyme A (HMG CoA) reductase inhibitors. By competitively inhibiting HMG CoA reductase, lovastatin disrupts the biosynthesis of cholesterol in hepatic and peripheral cells and increases the synthesis of high-density-lipoprotein HDL) receptors. Following oral administration, the lactone ring of lovastatin is hydrolysed to the active inhibitor of HMG CoA reductase, lovastatin acid. Lovastatin is known to have poor oral absorption and wide individual variation. In this study, bioequivalence test of two lovastatin formulations, the test drug ($Lovaload^{TM}$, Chong Kun Dang Pharmaceutical Co.) and the reference drug ($Mevacor^{TM}$, Chung Wae Pharmaceutical Co.) were conducted according to the guidelines of Korea Food and Drug Administration (KFDA). A total of 18 healthy male volunteers, $31.90\pm3.60$ years old and $72.17\;7.88$ kg of body weight in average, were evaluated in a randomized crossover manner with a 2-week washout period. Concentrations of lovastatin acid in plasma were measured upto 12 hours following a single oral administration of eight tablets (20 mg of lovastatin per tablet) by high-performance liquid chromatography with UV detection at 238 nm. The area under the concentration-vs-time curve from 0 to 12 hours $(AUC_{0-12h})$ was calculated by the trapezoidal summation method. The statistical analysis showed that there are no significant differences in $AUC_{0-12h),\;C_{max}\;and\;T_{max}$ between the two formulations ($6.72\%,\;1.52\%,\;and\;0.88\$, respectively). The least significant differences between the formulations at $\alpha$=0.05 were less than $20\%\;(11.65\%,\;19.73\%,\;and\;14.81\%\;for\;AUC_{0-12h},\;C_{max}\;and\;T_{max}$, respectively). The $90\%$ confidence intervals for these parameters were also within $\pm20\%\;(-1.50{\leq}{\delta}{\leq}15.00$, $-12.50{\leq}{\delta}{\leq}15.50,\;and\;-9.64{\leq}{\delta]{\leq}11.40{\leq}\;for\;\;AUC_{0-12h}$ ,$C_{max}\;and\;T_{max}$, respectively). In conclusion, the new generic product $Lovaload^{TM}$ was proven to be bioequivalent with the reference drug.

• Journal of Microbiology and Biotechnology
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• v.21 no.7
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• pp.766-775
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• 2011

We investigated the effect of high molecular weight polygamma- glutamic acid (hm ${\gamma}$-PGA) on adiposity and lipid metabolism of rats in the presence of an obesity-inducing diet. Thirty-two Sprague-Dawley rats were fed either a normal-fat (11.4% kcal fat, NFC) or high-fat (51% kcal fat, HFC) diet. After 5 weeks, half of each diet-fed group was treated with hm ${\gamma}$-PGA (NFP or HFP) for 4 weeks. The HFC group had significantly higher body weight, visceral fat mass, fasting serum levels of total cholesterol, LDL cholesterol, and leptin, and lower serum HDL cholesterol level compared with those of the NFC group (p < 0.05). Treatment with hm ${\gamma}$-PGA decreased body weight gain and perirenal fat mass (p<0.05), fasting serum total cholesterol, and mRNA expression of glucose-6- phosphate dehydrogenase (G6PD), regardless of dietary fat contents (p < 0.01). However, hm ${\gamma}$-PGA increased serum HDL cholesterol in the HFC group (p < 0.05). In vitro, 3-hydroxy-3-methylglutaryl coenzyme-A (HMGCoA) reductase activity was suppressed by the addition of hm ${\gamma}$-PGA. In agreement with observations in animal study, the supplementation of hm ${\gamma}$-PGA (150 mg/day) to 20 female subjects in an 8-week double-blind, placebocontrolled study resulted in a tendency to decrease total cholesterol and LDL cholesterol concentrations. We thus conclude that dietary supplementation of hm ${\gamma}$-PGA may act as a hypocholestrolemic agent, secondary to its inhibitor effect on HMG-CoA reductase, and decrease abdominal adiposity by decreasing hepatic lipogenesis. The present study is an important first step in establishing the effect of hm ${\gamma}$-PGA on cholesterol levels in rats and humans.

• Journal of the Korean Society of Food Science and Nutrition
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• v.31 no.5
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• pp.826-833
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• 2002

This study was conducted to investigate the effects of YK-209 mulberry leaves on HMG-CoA reductase activity and lipid composition of liver in streptozotocin-induced diabetic rats. Sprague-Dawley male rats weighing 100 $\pm$ 10 B were randomly assigned as a normal group and four STZ-induced diabetic groups according to the level of dietary mulberry leaves supplement. The experimental diets were fed ad libidum, so that diabetes was experimentally induced by intravenous injection of STZ 55 mg/kg of body weight after feeding for 3 weeks. Animals were sacrificed on the 9th day of diabetic states. The levels of serum triglyceride, total-cholesterol and LDL-cholesterol in DM group were higher than mulberry leaves supplemented groups and normal group, but those of the mulberry leaves supplemented groups were significantly decreased to normal level. In contrast, the leavels of serum HDL-cholesterol in DM group was significantly reduced than that of normal group, but mulberry leaves supplemented groups were increased to normal level. Atherogenic index in DM group was higher about 3 fold than the normal group but the DM-0.1Y and DM-0.2Y groups were maintained the normal level. Contents of total lipid and triglyceride of liver in DM group were significantly lower than that of normal group, but the mulberry Leaves supplemented groups increased than that of DM group. The contents of hepatic cholesterol in DM group was 160% higher than that of normal group, but the mulberry leaves supplementation groups maintained the normal level. The activity of hepatic 3-hydroxy -3-methylglutaryl Coenzyme A (HMG-CoA) reductase in DM group was 43% lower than that of normal group, but had no significant difference between DM-0.1Y, DM-0.2Y and normal groups. In conclusion, YK-209 mulberry loaves has improving effect of the lipid metabolism in STZ-induced diabetic rats through hepatic HMG-CoA reductase activity, and the change of lipids contents in serum and liver.

• Korean Journal of Clinical Pharmacy
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• v.28 no.4
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• pp.293-299
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• 2018

Background: 3-Hydroxy-3-methylglutaryl coenzyme A reductase inhibitors (statins) effectively reduce serum levels of low-density lipoprotein (LDL) and total cholesterol. High-intensity statins are recommended for all patients aged ${\leq}75$ with clinical atherosclerotic cardiovascular disease (ASCVD), diabetes mellitus aged 40-75 with ${\geq}7.5%$ estimated 10-year ASCVD risk and LDL-C ${\geq}190mg/dL$. High-intensity statins associated with more frequent adverse events (AEs) compared to moderate- to low-intensity statins. The aim of this study was to compare AEs between high-intensity and moderate- to low-intensity statin group using the Korea Adverse Event Reporting System (KAERS) database. Methods: Adults (${\geq}18years$) with statin-associated AEs from July 2009-June 2014 were included. Only AEs classified as "certain", "probable" and "possible" based on the WHO-Uppsala Monitoring Center criteria were analyzed. Results: In total, 247 AEs from 196 patients [high-intensity statin group (HG), n = 25 (13%); moderate- to low-intensity statin group (MLG), n = 171 (87%)] were included. Mean age was higher in HG compared with MLG ($67{\pm}14$ vs $62{\pm}12$). The HG showed a significant higher frequency of liver/biliary system disorders (37% vs 14%, p = 0.001). Hepatic function abnormal was reported more frequently in HG compared to MLG (26% vs 9%, p = 0.006). Conclusion: According to KAERS data, liver/biliary system disorders were more frequently reported in HG compared to MLG.

• Journal of Veterinary Science
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• v.23 no.1
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• pp.4.1-4.15
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• 2022

Background: Flavonoids are natural polyphenols found widely in citrus fruit and peel that possess anti-adipogenic effects. On the other hand, the detailed mechanisms for the antiadipogenic effects of flavonoids are unclear. Objectives: The present study observed the anti-adipogenic effects of five major citrus flavonoids, including hesperidin (HES), narirutin (NAR), nobiletin (NOB), sinensetin (SIN), and tangeretin (TAN), on AMP-activated protein kinase (AMPK) activation in palmitate (PA)-treated HepG2 cells. Methods: The intracellular lipid accumulation and triglyceride (TG) contents were quantified by Oil-red O staining and TG assay, respectively. The glucose uptake was assessed using 2-[N-(7-Nitrobenz-2-oxa-1,3-diazol-4-yl)amino]-2-deoxy-d-glucose (2-NBDG) assay. The levels of AMPK, acetyl-CoA carboxylase (ACC), and glycogen synthase kinase 3 beta (GSK3β) phosphorylation, and levels of sterol regulatory element-binding protein 2 (SREBP-2) and 3-hydroxy-3-methylglutaryl-CoA reductase (HMGCR) expression were analyzed by Western blot analysis. The potential interaction between the flavonoids and the γ-subunit of AMPK was investigated by molecular docking analysis. Results: The flavonoid treatment reduced both intracellular lipid accumulation and TG content in PA-treated HepG2 cells significantly. In addition, the flavonoids showed increased 2-NBDG uptake in an insulin-independent manner in PA-treated HepG2 cells. The flavonoids increased the AMPK, ACC, and GSK3β phosphorylation levels and decreased the SREBP-2 and HMGCR expression levels in PA-treated HepG2 cells. Molecular docking analysis showed that the flavonoids bind to the CBS domains in the regulatory γ-subunit of AMPK with high binding affinities and could serve as potential AMPK activators. Conclusion: The overall results suggest that the anti-adipogenic effect of flavonoids on PA-treated HepG2 cells results from the activation of AMPK by flavonoids.

• Nutrition Research and Practice
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• v.5 no.5
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• pp.412-420
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• 2011

The aim of the present study was to investigate the hypocholesterolemic effect and potential of tyramine derivatives from Lycii Cortex Radicis (LCR), the root bark of lycium (Lycium chenese Miller) in reducing lipid peroxidation. The activities of enzymes, hepatic 3-hydroxy 3-methylglutaryl (HMG) CoA reductase and acyl-CoA:cholesterol acyltransferase (ACAT) and LDL oxidation were measured in vitro and animal experiments were also performed by feeding LCR extracts to rats. The test compounds employed for in vitro study were trans-N-p-coumaroyltyramine (CT) and trans-N-feruloyltyramine (FT), LCR components, N-(p-coumaroyl)serotonin (CS) and N-feruloylserotonin (FS) from safflower seeds, ferulic acid (FA) and 10-gingerol. It was observed that FT and FS at the concentration of 1.2 mg/mL inhibited liver microsomal HMG CoA reductase activity by ~40%, but no inhibition of activity was seen in the cases of CT, CS, FA and 10-gingerol. Whereas, ACAT activity was inhibited ~50% by FT and CT, 34-43% by FS and CS and ~80% by 10-gingerol at the concentration of 1 mg/mL. A significant delay in LDL oxidation was induced by CT, FT, and 10-gingerol. For the animal experiment, five groups of Sprague-Dawley male rats were fed high fat diets containing no test material (HF-control), 1 and 2% of LCR ethanol extract (LCR1 and LCR2), and 1% of extracts from safflower seed (Sat) and ginger (Gin). The results indicated that total cholesterol level was significantly lower in Saf, LCR2 and Gin groups, and HDL cholesterol level was lower only in Gin group when compared with HF-control group; while there was no difference in the serum triglyceride levels among the five experimental groups. The level of liver cholesterol was significantly lower in LCR1 and LCR2 groups than HF-control Serum levels of TBARS were significantly lower only in LCR2 group when compared with HF-control group. From the observed results, we concluded that LCR can be utilized as a hypocholesterolemic ingredient in combination with ginger, especially for functional foods.

• Journal of Physiology & Pathology in Korean Medicine
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• v.36 no.5
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• pp.181-186
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• 2022

Atractylodes macrocephala (AM) and Amomum villosum (AV) are the most common herbs in Korean Medicine to treat digestive diseases. In this study, we investigated the cholesterol lowering effects of mixtures of AM and AV extracts on high cholesterol diet (HCD) induced dyslipidemia mouse model. We classified animals into six different groups; Group 1: Normal diet, Group 2: HCD, Group 3: AV extracts : AM extracts (1:1) (200 mg/kg) + HCD, Group 4: AV extracts : AM extracts (1:2) (200 mg/kg) + HCD, Group 5: AV extracts : AM extracts (1:3) (200 mg/kg) + HCD, Group 6: Simvastatin 40 mg/kg + HCD. After 4 weeks of oral administration of respective drugs, we checked body, liver and epididymal fatweights along with liver and serum triacylglyceride (TG) concentration, total and low density lipoprotein (LDL) cholesterol in serum. Moreover, 3-hydroxy-3-methylglutaryl-CoA (HMG-CoA) reductase (HMGCR), LDL receptor (LDLR), and sterol regulatory element-binding protein 2 (SREBP2) were detected by RT PCR or western blot analysis. The overall results showed that mixtures of AM and AV extracts inhibited HCD-induced increases of total cholesterol and LDL cholesterol in serum. Those effects seem to be caused by AM and AV extracts through inhibition of HMGCR expression. And thus blood cholesterol is induced into the liver by increasing LDLR expression, which is regulated by SREBP2 transcrption factor. The cholesterol lowering effects and mechanism of mixtures of AM and AV extracts was similar to the statin. We have identified the potential mixtures of AM and AV extracts as a new treatment for dyslipidemia.