• Journal of Chest Surgery
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• v.40 no.1 s.270
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• pp.45-51
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• 2007

Background: Although echocardiography is usually used for quantitative assessment of left ventricular function, the recently developed 16-slice multidetector computed tomography (MDCT) is not only capable of evaluating the coronary arteries but also left ventricular function. Therefore, the objective of our study was to compare the values of left ventricular function quantified by MDCT to those by echocardiography for evaluation of its regards to clinical applications. Material and Method: From 49 patients who underwent MDCT in our hospital from November 1, 2003 to January 31, 2005, we enrolled 20 patients who underwent echocardiography during the same period for this study. Left ventricular end-diastolic volume index (LVEDVI), left ventricular end-systolic volume index (LVESVI), stroke volume index (SVI), left ventricular mass index (LVMI), and ejection fraction (EF) were analyzed. Result: Average LVEDVI ($80.86{\pm}34.69mL$ for MDCT vs $60.23{\pm}29.06mL$ for Echocardiography, p<0.01), average LVESVI ($37.96{\pm}24.52mL$ for MDCT vs $25.68{\pm}16.57mL$ for Echocardiography, p<0.01), average SVI ($42.90{\pm}15.86mL$ for MDCT vs $34.54{\pm}17.94mL$ for Echocardiography, p<0.01), average LVMI ($72.14{\pm}25.35mL$ for MDCT vs $130.35{\pm}53.10mL$ for Echocardiography, p<0.01), and average EF ($55.63{\pm}12.91mL$ for MOCT vs $59.95{\pm}12.75ml$ for Echocardiography, p<0.05) showed significant difference between both groups. Average LVEDVI, average LVESVI, and average SVI were higher in MDCT, and average LVMI and average EF were higher in echocardiogram. Comparing correlation for each parameters between both groups, LVEDVI $(r^2=0.74,\;p<0.0001)$, LVESVI $(r^2=0.69,\;p<0.0001)$ and SVI $(r^2=0.55,\;p<0.0001)$ showed high relevance, LVMI $(r^2=0.84,\;p<0.0001)$ showed very high relevance, and $EF (r^2=0.45,\;p=0.0002)$ showed relatively high relevance. Conclusion: Quantitative assessment of left ventricular volume and function using 16-slice MDCT showed high relevance compared with echocardiography, therefore may be a feasible assessment method. However, because the average of each parameters showed significant difference, the absolute values between both studies may not be appropriate for clinical applications. Furthermore, considering the future development of MDCT, we expect to be able to easily evaluate the assessment of coronary artery stenosis along with left ventricular function in coronary artery disease patients.

• Journal of the Korean Vacuum Society
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• v.15 no.6
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• pp.563-575
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• 2006

Ti(C,N) films are synthesized by pulsed DC plasma enhanced chemical vapor deposition (PEMOCVD) using metal-organic compounds of tetrakis diethylamide titanium at $200-300^{\circ}C$. To compare plasma parameter, in this study, $H_2$ and $He/H_2$ gases are used as carrier gas. The effect of $N_2\;and\;NH_3$ gases as reactive gas is also evaluated in reduction of C content of the films. Radical formation and ionization behaviors in plasma are analyzed in-situ by optical emission spectroscopy (OES) at various pulsed bias voltages and gas species. He and $H_2$ mixture is very effective in enhancing ionization of radicals, especially for the $N_2$. Ammonia $(NH_3)$ gas also highly reduces the formation of CN radical, thereby decreasing C content of Ti(C, N) films in a great deal. The microhardness of film is obtained to be $1,250\;Hk_{0.01}\;to\;1,760\;Hk_{0.01}$ depending on gas species and bias voltage. Higher hardness can be obtained under the conditions of $H_2\;and\;N_2$ gases as well as bias voltage of 600 V. Hf(C, N) films were also obtained by pulsed DC PEMOCYB from tetrakis diethyl-amide hafnium and $N_2/He-H_2$ mixture. The depositions were carried out at temperature of below $300^{\circ}C$, total chamber pressure of 1 Torr and varying the deposition parameters. Influences of the nitrogen contents in the plasma decreased the growth rate and attributed to amorphous components, to the high carbon content of the film. In XRD analysis the domain lattice plain was (111) direction and the maximum microhardness was observed to be $2,460\;Hk_{0.025}$ for a Hf(C,N) film grown under -600 V and 0.1 flow rate of nitrogen. The optical emission spectra measured during PEMOCVD processes of Hf(C, N) film growth were also discussed. $N_2,\;N_2^+$, H, He, CH, CN radicals and metal species(Hf) were detected and CH, CN radicals that make an important role of total PEMOCVD process increased carbon content.

• Korean Journal of Soil Science and Fertilizer
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• v.27 no.1
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• pp.33-39
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• 1994

This survey was conducted to investigate the factors affecting on salt accumulation and chemical components of soils cultivated with horticulture crops in plastic film houses. The soil samples were taken from 40 sites in the northern central areas of Korea and were analyzed for the chemical properties and soil separates. The data were evaluated with soil texture and years of cultivation as major factors. The results are summarized as follows : 1. The chemical properties of surface soils in plastic film house were pH 5.80, EC $3.59mScm^{-1}$, O.M. 4.20%, Av. $P_2O_5$ 1,178ppm, $NO_3-N$ 180ppm, Av. $SO_4{^{2-}}$ 353ppm, $Cl^-$ 240ppm, Ex. Na 0.40me/100g. 2. Compared to the outside soil of plastic film house, the inside soil had 2.5~3 times higher contents of $NO_3-N$, Av. $SO_4{^{2-}}$ and $Cl^-$, 1.2~1.8 times higher exchangeable base elements, and 2.8 times higher electrical conductivity. But pH value of the inside soil was lower than the outside soil by 0.3 pH unit. 3. Soil texture classification showed that sandy loam, loam and silt loam were 32.5 %, 37.5 %, and 30.0 %, respectively. The contents of $NO_3-N$, Av. $SO_4{^{2-}}$, $NH_4-N$ and EC value were very high in silt loam soils. Av. $P_2O_5$ content and pH value of sandy loam soils were higher than those of silt loam and loam soils. 4. The contents of O.M. and Av. $P_2O_5$ were higher in long term cultivation, but the contents of $NO_3-N$, Av. $SO_4{^{2-}}$, $Cl^-$, Ex. Mg and Ex. Na including EC of the soil with 2~4 years cultivation were higher than those of the soil with above 5 years cultivation. 5. Multiple linear regression analysis showed that contribution degree of soil chemical properties to the EC was high in the order of $NO_3-N$ > Av. $SO_4{^{2-}}$ > Ex. Na > $Cl^-$ > Av. $P_2O_5$ > $NH_4-N$ > Ex. Mg>Ex. Ca. Among the soil chemical properties the contribution of anions was remarkably high. 6. EC value correlated with ${\sum}A$(total content of anions)as $r=0.932^{**}$ and with ${\sum}C$(total content of cations) as $r=0.452^{**}$.

• Radiation Oncology Journal
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• v.16 no.1
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• pp.17-25
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• 1998

Purpose : Although local recurrence rates of stomach cancer after radiocal surgery have been reported in the range of $30-70\%$, the role of postoperative adjuvant therapy has not been established. We report the result of radiotherapy in resected stomach cancer with positive surgical margin to elucidate the role of postoperative radiotherapy. Materials and Methods : From June 1991 to August 1996, twenty five patients with positive surgical margins after radical gastrectomy were treated with postoperative radiotherapy and chemotherapy. Median dose of radiation was 55.8Gy and the range was 44.6-59.4Gy. Second cycle of chemotherapy was delivered concurrently with radiation and total number of six cycles were delivered. Twenty three had adenocarcinoma and the other two had leiornyosarcoma. The numbers of patients with stage I B, II, III A, III B, and IV were 1, 2, 11, 10 and 1 respectively. Positive margins at distal end of the stomach were in 17 patients and proximal in 5. The other three patients had positive margin at the sites of adjacent organ invasion Minimum and median follow-up periods were 12 months and 18 months, respectively, Results : Twenty-four of 25 patients received prescribed radiation dose and RTOG grade 3 toxicity of UGI tract was observed in 3, all of which were weight loss more than $15\%$ of their pretreatment weight. But hematemesis. melena, intestinal obstruction or grade 4 toxicity were not found. Locoregional failure within the radiation field was observed in 7 patients, and distant metastasis in 10 patients. Sites of locoregional recurrences involve anastomosis/remnant stomach in 3, tumor bed/duodenal stump in 3, regional lymph node in 1 patient Peritoneal seeding occurred in 6, liver metastases months and median disease free survival time was 26 months. Stages andradiation dose were not significant prognostic factors for locoregional in 2, and distant nodes in 2 patients. Four year disease specificsurvival rate was $40\%$ and disease free survival was $48\%$. Median survival was 35 failures. Conculsion : Although all patients in this study had positive surgical margins, locoregional failure rate was $28\%$, and 4 year disease specific survival rate was $40\%$. Considering small number of patients and relatively short follow-up period, it is not certain that postoperative radiotherapy lowered locoregional recurrences. but we could find a Possibility of the role of postoperative radiotherapy in Patients with high risk factors.

• Journal of Preventive Medicine and Public Health
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• v.29 no.4 s.55
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• pp.747-764
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• 1996

This study intended to obtain an useful information for health management of lead exposed workers and determine biological monitoring interval in early period of exposure by measuring the lead exposure indices and work duration in all male workers (n=433 persons) exposed less than 1 year in 6 storage battery industries and in 49 males who are not exposed to lead as control. The examined variables were blood lead concentration (PBB), Zinc-protoporphyrin concentration (ZPP), Hemoglobin (HB) and personal history; also measured lead concentration in air (PBA) in the workplace. According to the geometric mean of lead concentration in the air, the factories were grouped into three categories: A; When it is below $0.05mg/m^3$, B; When it is between 0.05 and $0.10mg/m^3$, and C; When it is above $0.10mg/m^3$. The results obtained were as follows: 1. The means of blood lead concentration (PBB), ZPP concentration and hemoglobin(HB) in all male workers exposed to lead less than 1 year in storage battery industries were $29.5{\pm}12.4{\mu}g/100ml,\;52.9{\pm}30.0{\mu}g/100ml\;and\;15.2{\pm}1.1\;gm/100ml$. 2. The means of blood lead concentration (PBB), ZPP concentration and hemoglobin(HB) in control group were $5.8{\pm}1.6{\mu}g/100ml,\;30.8{\pm}12.7{\mu}g/100ml\;and\;15.7{\pm}1.6{\mu}g/100ml$, being much lower than that of study group exposed to lead. 3. The means of blood lead concentration and ZPP concentration among group A were $21.9{\pm}7.6{\mu}g/100,\;41.4{\pm}12.6{\mu}g/100ml$ ; those of group B were $29.8{\pm}11.6{\mu}g/100,\;52.6{\pm}27.9{\mu}g/100ml$ ; those of group C were $37.2{\pm}13.5{\mu}g/100,\;66.3{\pm}40.7{\mu}g/100ml$. Significant differences were found among three factory group(P<0.01) that was classified by the geometric mean of lead concentration in the air, group A being the lowest. 4. The mean of blood lead concentration of workers who have different work duration (month) was as follows ; When the work duration was $1\sim2$ month, it was $24.1{\pm}12.4{\mu}g/100ml$, ; When the work duration was $3\sim4$ month, it was $29.2{\pm}13.4{\mu}g/100ml$ ; and it was $28.9\sim34.5{\mu}g/100ml$ for the workers who had longer work duration than other. Significant differences were found among work duration group(P<0.05). 5. The mean of ZPP concentration of workers who have different work duration (month) was as follows ; When the work duration was $1\sim2$ month, it was $40.6{\pm}18.0{\mu}g/100ml$, ; When the work duration was $3\sim4$ month, it was $53.4{\pm}38.4{\mu}g/100ml$ ; and it was $51.5\sim60.4{\mu}g/100ml$ for the workers who had longer work duration than other. Significant differences were found among work duration group(P<0.05). 6. Among total workers(433 person), 18.2% had PBB concentration higher than $40{\mu}g/100ml$ and 7.1% had ZPP concentration higher than $100{\mu}g/100ml$ ; In workers of factory group A, those were 0.9% and 0.0% ; In workers of factory group B, those were 17.1% and 6.9% ; In workers of factory group C, those were 39.4% and 15.4%. 7. The proportions of total workers(433 person) with blood lead concentration lower than $25{\mu}g/100ml$ and ZPP concentration lower than $50{\mu}g/100ml$ were 39.7% and 61.9%, respectively ; In workers of factory group A, those were 65.5% and 82.3% : In workers of factory group B, those were 36.1% and 60.2% ; In workers of factory group C, those were 19.2% and 43.3%. 8. Blood lead concentration (r=0.177, P<0.01), ZPP concentration (r=0.135, P<0.01), log ZPP (r=0.170, P<0.01) and hemoglobin (r=0.096, P<0.05) showed statistically significant correlation with work duration (month). ZPP concentration (r=0.612, P<0.01) and log ZPP (r=0.614, P<0.01) showed statistically significant correlation with blood lead concentration 9. The slopes of simple linear regression between work duration(month, independent variable) and blood lead concentration (dependent variable) in workplace with low air concentration of lead was less steeper than that of poor working condition with high geometric mean air concentration of lead. The study result indicates that new employees should be provided with biological monitoring including blood lead concentration test and education about personal hygiene and work place management within $3\sim4$ month.

• Journal of Preventive Medicine and Public Health
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• v.29 no.4 s.55
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• pp.785-799
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• 1996

We investigated the 1,004 workers who worked in a automobile factory to study the epidemiologic characterists of dermatoses due to cutting oils. Among the workers, 667(66.4%) answered the questionaire. They are belong to 5 departments of the factory-the Engine-Work(258 workers), Gasoline engine Assembly(210), Diesel engine Assembly(96), Power train Work(86), Power train Assembly(17). We measured the oil mist concentration in air of the departments and examined the workers who had dermatologic symptoms. The results were follows; 1) Oil mist concentration ; Of all measured points(52),9 points(17.2%) exeeded $5mg/m^3$- the time-weighed PEL-and one department had a upper confidence limit(95%) higher than $5mg/m^3$. 2) Dermatologists examined 213 workers. 172 of them complained any skin symptoms at that time - itching(32.5%), papule(21.6%), scale(15.7%), vesicle(12.5%) in order. The abnormal skin site found by dermatologist were palm(29.3%), finger & nail(24.6%), forearm(16.2%), back of hand(8.4%) in order. 3) As the result of physical examination, we found that 160 workers had skin diseases. Contact dermatitis was the most common; 69 workers had contact dermatitis alone(43.1%), 11 had contact dermatitis with acne(6.9%), 10 had contact dermatitis with folliculitis(6.3%), 1 had contact dermatitis with acne & folliculitis, and 1 had contact dermatitis with abnormal pigmentation. Others were folliculitis(9 workers, 5.6%), acne(8, 5.0%), folliculitis & acne (2, 1.2%), keratosis(1, 0.6%), abnormal pigmentation (1, 0.6%), and non-specific hand eczema (47, 29.3%). 4) The prevalence of any skin diseases was 34.0 pet 100 in cutting oil users, and 13.3 per 100 in non- users. Especially, the prevalence of contact dermatitis was 23.0 per 100 in cutting oil users and 23.0 per 100 in non-users. 5) We tried patch test(standard serise, oil serise, organic solvents) on 49 patients to differentiate allergic contact dermatitis from irritant contact dermatitis and found 20 were positive. 6) In a multivariate analysis(independant=age, tenure, kinds of cutting oil), the risk of skin diseases was higher in the water-based cutting oil user and both oil user than non-user or neat oil user(odds ratio were 2.16 and 2.78, respectively). And the risk of contact dermatitis was much higher at the same groups(odds ratio were 5.16 and 6.82, respectively).

• Journal of Genetic Medicine
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• v.7 no.2
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• pp.125-132
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• 2010

Purpose: Preimplantation genetic diagnosis (PGD), also known as embryo screening, is a pre-pregnancy technique used to identify genetic defects in embryos created through in vitro fertilization. PGD is considered a means of prenatal diagnosis of genetic abnormalities. PGD is used when one or both genetic parents has a known genetic abnormality; testing is performed on an embryo to determine if it also carries the genetic abnormality. The main advantage of PGD is the avoidance of selective pregnancy termination as it imparts a high likelihood that the baby will be free of the disease under consideration. The application of PGD to genetic practices, reproductive medicine, and genetic counseling is becoming the key component of fertility practice because of the need to develop a custom PGD design for each couple. Materials and Methods: In this study, a survey on the contents of genetic counseling in PGD was carried out via direct contact or e-mail with the patients and specialists who had experienced PGD during the three months from February to April 2010. Results: A total of 91 persons including 60 patients, 49 of whom had a chromosomal disorder and 11 of whom had a single gene disorder, and 31 PGD specialists responded to the survey. Analysis of the survey results revealed that all respondents were well aware of the importance of genetic counseling in all steps of PGD including planning, operation, and follow-up. The patient group responded that the possibility of unexpected results (51.7%), genetic risk assessment and recurrence risk (46.7%), the reproduction options (46.7%), the procedure and limitation of PGD (43.3%) and the information of PGD technology (35.0%) should be included as a genetic counseling information. In detail, 51.7% of patients wanted to be counseled for the possibility of unexpected results and the recurrence risk, while 46.7% wanted to know their reproduction options (46.7%). Approximately 96.7% of specialists replied that a non-M.D. genetic counselor is necessary for effective and systematic genetic counseling in PGD because it is difficult for physicians to offer satisfying information to patients due to lack of counseling time and specific knowledge of the disorders. Conclusions: The information from the survey provides important insight into the overall present situation of genetic counseling for PGD in Korea. The survey results demonstrated that there is a general awareness that genetic counseling is essential for PGD, suggesting that appropriate genetic counseling may play a important role in the success of PGD. The establishment of genetic counseling guidelines for PGD may contribute to better planning and management strategies for PGD.

• Nuclear Medicine and Molecular Imaging
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• v.42 no.4
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• pp.307-313
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• 2008

Purpose: Vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) and its receptor, fetal liver kinase 1 (Flk-1), play an important role in vascular permeability and tumor angiogenesis. The aim of this study is to evaluate the therapeutic efficacy of $^{131}I$ labeled anti-Flk-1 monoclonal antibody (DC101) on the growth of melanoma tumor, which is known to be very aggressive in vivo. Materials and Methods: Balb/c nude mice were injected subcutaneously with melanoma cells in the right flank. Tumors were allowed to grow up to $200-250\;mm^3$ in volume. Gamma camera imaging and biodistribution studies were performed to identify an uptake of $^{131}I$-DC101 in various organs. Mice with tumor were randomly divided into five groups (10 mice per group) and injected intravenously; control PBS (group 1), $^{131}I$-DC101 $50\;{\mu}g/mouse$ (group 2), non-labeled DC101 $50\;{\mu}g/mouse$ (group 3), $^{131}I$-DC101 $30\;{\mu}g/mouse$ (group 4) and $15\;{\mu}g/mouse$ (group 5) every 3 or 4 days for 20 days. Tumor volume was measured with caliper twice a week. Results: In gamma camera images, the uptake of $^{131}I$-DC101 into tumor and thyroid was increased with time. Biodistribution results showed that the radioactivity of blood and other major organ was gradually decreased with time whereas tumor uptake was increased up to 48 hr and then decreased. After 4th injection of $^{131}I$-DC101, tumor volume of group 2 and 4 was significantly smaller than that group 1. After 5th injection, the tumor volume of group 5 also significantly reduced. Conclusion: These results indicated that delivery of $^{131}I$ to tumor using FlK-1 antibody, DC101, effectively blocks tumor growth in aggressive melanoma xenograft model.

• The Korean Journal of Nuclear Medicine Technology
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• v.19 no.1
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• pp.17-29
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• 2015

Purpose For nuclear medicine technologists, it is difficult to stay away from or to separate from radiation sources comparing with workers who are using radiation generating devices. Nuclear medicine technologists work is recognized as an optimized way when they are familiar with work practices. The aims of this study are to measure radiation exposure of technologists working in PET and to evaluate the occupational radiation dose after implementation of strategies to lower exposure. Materials and Methods We divided into four working types by QC for PET, injection, scan and etc. in PET scan procedure. In QC of PET, we compared the radiation exposure controlling next to $^{68}Ge$ cylinder phantom directly to controlling the table in console room remotely. In injection, we compared the radiation exposure guiding patient in waiting room before injection to after injection. In scan procedure of PET, we compared the radiation exposure moving the table using the control button located next to the patient to moving the table using the control button located in the far distance. PERSONAL ELECTRONIC DOSEMETER (PED), Tracerco$^{TM}$ was used for measuring exposed radiation doses. Results The average doses of exposed radiation were $0.27{\pm}0.04{\mu}Sv$ when controlling the table directly and $0.13{\pm}0.14{\mu}Sv$ when controlling the table remotely while performing QC. The average doses of exposed radiation were $0.97{\pm}0.36{\mu}Sv$ when guiding patient after injection and $0.62{\pm}0.17{\mu}Sv$ when guiding patient before injection. The average doses of exposed radiation were $1.33{\pm}0.54{\mu}Sv$ when using the control button located next to the patient and $0.94{\pm}0.50{\mu}Sv$ when using the control button located in far distance while acquiring image. As a result, there were statistically significant differences(P<0.05). Conclusion: From this study, we found that how much radiation doses technologists are exposed on average at each step of PET procedure while working in PET center and how we can reduce the occupational radiation dose after implementation of strategies to lower exposure. And if we make effort to seek any other methods to reduce technologist occupational radiation, we can minimize and optimize exposed radiation doses in department of nuclear medicine. Conclusion From this study, we found that how much radiation doses technologists are exposed on average at each step of PET procedure while working in PET center and how we can reduce the occupational radiation dose after implementation of strategies to lower exposure. And if we make effort to seek any other methods to reduce technologist occupational radiation, we can minimize and optimize exposed radiation doses in department of nuclear medicine.

• The Korean Journal of Nuclear Medicine Technology
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• v.21 no.1
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• pp.44-49
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• 2017

Purpose Radiation exposure management has been strictly regulated for the radiation workers, but there are only a few studies on potential risk of radiation exposure to non-radiation workers, especially nurses in a general ward. The present study aimed to estimate the exact total exposure of the nurse in a general ward by close contact with the patient undergoing nuclear medicine examinations. Materials and Methods Radiation exposure rate was determined by using thermoluminescent dosimeter (TLD) and optical simulated luminescence (OSL) in 14 nurses in a general ward from October 2015 to June 2016. External radiation rate was measured immediately after injection and examination at skin surface, and 50 cm and 1 m distance from 50 patients (PET/CT 20 pts; Bone scan 20 pts; Myocardial SPECT 10 pts). After measurement, effective half-life, and total radiation exposure expected in nurses were calculated. Then, expected total exposure was compared with total exposures actually measured in nurses by TLD and OSL. Results Mean and maximum amount of radiation exposure of 14 nurses in a general ward were 0.01 and 0.02 mSv, respectively in each measuring period. External radiation rate after injection at skin surface, 0.5 m and 1 m distance from patients was as following; $376.0{\pm}25.2$, $88.1{\pm}8.2$ and $29.0{\pm}5.8{\mu}Sv/hr$, respectively in PET/CT; $206.7{\pm}56.6$, $23.1{\pm}4.4$ and $10.1{\pm}1.4{\mu}Sv/hr$, respectively in bone scan; $22.5{\pm}2.6$, $2.4{\pm}0.7$ and $0.9{\pm}0.2{\mu}Sv/hr$, respectively in myocardial SPECT. After examination, external radiation rate at skin surface, 0.5 m and 1 m distance from patients was decreased as following; $165.3{\pm}22.1$, $38.7{\pm}5.9$ and $12.4{\pm}2.5{\mu}Sv/hr$, respectively in PET/CT; $32.1{\pm}8.7$, $6.2{\pm}1.1$, $2.8{\pm}0.6$, respectively in bone scan; $14.0{\pm}1.2$, $2.1{\pm}0.3$, $0.8{\pm}0.2{\mu}Sv/hr$, respectively in myocardial SPECT. Based upon the results, an effective half-life was calculated, and at 30 minutes after examination the time to reach normal dose limit in 'Nuclear Safety Act' was calculated conservatively without considering a half-life. In oder of distance (at skin surface, 0.5 m and 1 m distance from patients), it was 7.9, 34.1 and 106.8 hr, respectively in PET/CT; 40.4, 199.5 and 451.1 hr, respectively in bone scan, 62.5, 519.3 and 1313.6 hr, respectively in myocardial SPECT. Conclusion Radiation exposure rate may differ slightly depending on the work process and the environment in a general ward. Exposure rate was measured at step in the general examination procedure and it made our results more reliable. Our results clearly showed that total amount of radiation exposure caused by residual radioactive isotope in the patient body was neglectable, even comparing with the natural radiation exposure. In conclusion, nurses in a general ward were much less exposed than the normal dose limit, and the effects of exposure by contacting patients undergoing nuclear medicine examination was ignorable.