• Economic and Environmental Geology
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• v.55 no.5
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• pp.447-463
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• 2022

The lime and clay that used in the construction of the Tomb of King Muryeong and the Royal Tombs in Gongju are auxiliary materials, and are used joint and plaster materials for the wall to play a role of structural support. In this study, the homogeneity between the tombs and material characteristics were interpreted through quantitative analysis of lime and clay. As a result of microtexture and composition analysis, almost the same minerals were identified in each sample groups, and similar characteristics were shown in thermal analysis. Geochemically, it is confirmed that the behavior characteristics are very similar regardless of the tombs. The compositions is also confirmed high homogeneity in the diagrams of CaO-MgO-SiO₂, RO₂-(RO+R₂O) correlations, A-CN-K and A-CNK-FM triangles. Therefore, it is interpreted that the clay used for the construction of the tomb complex was supplied from around area, and the raw materials of lime were produced using shell fragments of oyster family based on mainly composed of calcite. It is interpreted that the raw materials of lime were supplied from middens along the west coast of down the Geumgang river in Korean peninsula, but the consideration of the supply site, needs to be cross-validated through stable isotope analysis, use of carbonate rock and reproduction experiments.

• Conservation Science in Museum
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• v.28
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• pp.17-34
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• 2022

This study seeks to identify the material characteristics of earthenware excavated from the Bangi-dong Ancient Tomb No. 3 and the articulated stone-mound tomb of the Seokchon-dong ancient tombs in the Songpa region, and analyze the homogeneity and the firing temperature of the materials used at each excavated site. The remains have been studied relatively recently, and the groups of tombs in which they were found demonstrate the transition of ancient Korean burial systems, and at the same time, provide important archaeological data about those in power at the time. The earthenware pottery excavated from the two sites examined in the study were buried at different times, and it is assumed that they were made by procuring weathered soil of similar gneiss, judging from the behavior of the compatible and incompatible elements and the weathering tendency found by examining the main components. In addition, the examination of the mineral composition and microstructure of clay indicates that the earthenware from Seokchon-dong was fired at 950 degrees Celsius or lower at a relatively early stage. On the other hand, the earthenware from Bangi-dong Tomb No. 3 was confirmed to have experienced temperatures below 850 degrees Celsius and above 1,000 degrees Celsius. However, it is difficult to interpret the difference as the result of the changes in firing temperature throughout the eras. It is expected that it will be possible to interpret the changes in earthenware manufacturing techniques by comparing more diverse earthenware potteries and ancient soils.

• Journal of Conservation Science
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• v.31 no.1
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• pp.47-64
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• 2015

The excavated potteries and raw clays of the Bronze Age from the archaeological sites in the Cheonan-Asan area were studied on material scientific characteristics and homogeneity. Under the microscope, grainsize of the tempers in the potteries were distributed from less than 1mm to 10mm. Microtexture of the potteries showed various shapes and sizes of pores. In addition to the main minerals such as quartz, feldspar, mica, hornblende, chlorite and talc were found from the X-ray diffraction analysis of potteries, while talc was not found in the raw clay. Therefore, it was considered as an artificially added mineral. Firing temperature of the potteries, which did not contain chlorite, are assumed that they were baked below $850^{\circ}C$. On the other hand, the potteries which had mica and talc, are assumed that they were fired below $900^{\circ}C$. The geochemical characteristics of the potteries and raw clays showed very similar patterns, that means the potteries were produced by using the raw clay sources from each site.

• Journal of Conservation Science
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• v.26 no.3
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• pp.229-245
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• 2010

The pupose of this study was to identify the material characteristics, firing environments and making techniques for the jar coffins from the Oryangdong kiln site and the Ungokdong tomb site in Naju. All jar coffins had very similar physical, mineralogical and geochemical characteristics, although it was excavated from the different sites. The wall thickness of the jar coffins was about 2.3 to 5.3 cm. Under the microscopy, the jar coffins include a large quantity of various quartz with some microcrystalline and showed partly orthoclase and biotite. It is presumed that the mineral sherds added to maintain the thick wall and to control the percentage of contraction during drying and firing of jar coffins and it has contained about 11.4 to 19.8 %. Firing temperature of the jar coffins is estimated as 1,000 to $1,150^{\circ}C$. Also, all jar coffins and soils show similar geochemical behavior of elements and clay-mineralization degree within the site. This indicates making that the soil is probable to be a raw material of the jar coffins. But it shows different characteristics in major elements of soils which is collected at the kiln floor and the trench region of the Oryangdong kiln site because of the lack of quartz and feldspar in the soils. Therefore, it can use of the jar coffins making clay, if it goes through a simple special process such as mixing temper.

• Journal of Conservation Science
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• v.27 no.2
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• pp.163-179
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• 2011

This study was to identify the material characteristics and provenance of the crucibles, potteries and roof tiles from the Wonsinheungdong site in Daejeon, Korea. Similar mineral composition of each samples showed by microscopic observation and X-ray diffraction analysis. However, wall thickness and mineral characterization of each ceramic artifacts are quite different. The pottery is characterized by thin wall with 0.5 to 0.7 cm and fine grained clay matrix. While the crucible and roof tile has thick wall with 1.3 to 2.5 cm, poorly sorted texture of many quarz, orthoclase and plagioclase whithin ceramic fabric. And large elonagated voids formed by hydrocarbone of straw during the firing and loose matrix obseved in crucible. All ceramic samples and ground soil of the site show similar mineralogical characteristics geochemical behavior and clay-mineralization degree. This indicates making that the soil is probable to be a raw material of all ceramic from the Wonsinheungdong site. Also, firing temperature of most ceramic artifacts are estimated as 850 of all ceramic from the Wonsinheungdong site. Also, firing temperature of most ceramic artifacts are estimated as 850 to $950^{\circ}C$ but hardest pottery fired high temperature between 1,050 to $1,150^{\circ}C$. The vitreous molten materials interpreted in slag included segregation of copper and tin. But it can not exclude the possibility that the glass molten material because observed reddish and greenish vitreous fine structure under microscopic.

• Economic and Environmental Geology
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• v.56 no.3
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• pp.217-227
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• 2023

Crystalline calcium carbonate (CaCO₃) occurs in various geological and aqueous environments as calcite, aragonite, and vaterite. These minerals also have practical applications in engineered settings. Synthetic methods of calcium carbonate have been developed for scientific research and technical applications. For example, these methods have become widely adopted for studying the formation of CaCO₃ minerals and (geo-)chemical processes involving these minerals in natural and engineered systems. Furthermore, these methods have the potential to be applied in various technical and biomedical fields. Water-based synthesis is particularly important for simulating the formation of calcium carbonate minerals in natural aqueous environments. This review paper describes the procedures and experimental conditions for water-based synthetic methods of each calcium carbonate polymorph, compares the morphological and structural features of the resulting crystals, and analyzes the crystallization mechanisms.

• Economic and Environmental Geology
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• v.45 no.3
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• pp.237-253
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• 2012

The Mireuksaji stone pagoda is constructed Baekje Period in the 7th century which is located in Iksan, Korea. This stone pagoda designated by National Treasure No. 11 is the only remaining pagoda. This pagoda has lost the original form in part and the whole stonework wase dismantled. Work for the restoration is currently in progress. This study was divided into soil strata such as construct layer of the temple site, foundation layer of the pagoda basement, and construct layer of the stylobate by stratum to interpretation the skill of rammed earth and making techniques. The of physical, mineralogical and geochemical characteristics of soil samples were identified. Five pieces of soil in and around the Mireuksaji temple site was selected for the comparative study to interpretate the mutual homogeneity among soil stratum. As a result, artificial addition has not been identified in all soil samples using rammed earth. The soils used for the basement of the stone pagoda (construct layer of the temple site, foundation layer of the pagoda basement, construct layer of the stylobate) were confirmed to be the same origin as soil in and around Mireuksaji temple site. Thus these results indicate that the basement of the pagoda was constructed using soils in and around the Mireuksaji temple site without work as careful selection.

• Journal of Conservation Science
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• v.29 no.2
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• pp.171-185
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• 2013

The purpose of this study were to interpret making characteristics and clay sources for Proto-Three Kingdoms period potteries which were excavated from Bakjimeure site in Tangjeong, Asan, Korea, on the basis of shape types. The pottery samples of the studied included deep bowl pottery, cylinder shaped pottery, duck shaped pottery and rounded based jar with short neck. And the last jar was dominant among them. This is supported in nearby Yongduri Jinter site, Galmaeri site and Baekseokdong site. They vary in terms of color of clay, absorption ratio and mineral classification. Based on the fact that their absorption ratio range was 4.50 to 25.19% and firing temperature range was 850 to $1,150^{\circ}C$, they were thought to be widely used. The equivalence of cylinder shaped pottery, duck shaped pottery and deep bowl pottery was high in terms of material characteristics and their firing temperature range was 850 to $950^{\circ}C$. However, the deep bowl pottery, compared to other pottery shapes, contained great amount of coarse grained quartz and feldspar, and was different from others in terms of function. For soil sample collected from relative plains (area 3) in the southernmost part of the site, their mineralogical and geochemical characteristics were the most similar to those of the potteries excavated from the Bakjimeure site and even most of the potteries collected from different sites.

• Conservation Science in Museum
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• v.30
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• pp.47-70
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• 2023

In 2019, the first excavation survey was conducted at the Temple Site No. 4 of Yaksugok Vally in Namsan Mountain, Gyeongju to determine the original location of the headless stone Buddha statue and the structure of the temple site. The survey excavated a stone Buddha head that was confirmed in a comparative analysis to be petrologically and mineralogically identical to a headless stone seated Buddha statue found derelict nearby. Traces of gold leaf and black adhesive were found on a portion of the right side of the face of the Buddha head buried in the ground. Since it is exceedingly rare for lacquer and gilding techniques to have been applied to a large stone Buddha statue without a base layer, this study examines the gilding techniques of the time by analyzing the characteristics of the materials used. In this process, the structure of the gold foil was observed through analytical microscopy and scanning electron microscopy with energy dispersive X-ray spectrometry, and the gold (Au) component was identified. As a result of analyzing the black adhesive using pyrolysis-gas chromatograph/mass spectrometry (pyrolysis-GC/MS), pyrolysis compounds such as hydrocarbons, fatty acids, catechol, and catechol oxidation products were detected. This was identical to the characteristics identified upon analyzing lacquer collected from species of lacquer tree whose main component is urushiol. Therefore, it was confirmed that the stone Buddha head excavated from the Temple Site No. 4 of Yaksugok Valley was separated from a nearby stone seated Buddha statue, and that the gold foil was attached using lacquer sap collected from lacquer trees, which grow in Korea, China, and Japan.

• Ecology and Resilient Infrastructure
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• v.2 no.3
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• pp.216-223
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• 2015

The conservation project to protect an endangered fish, Gobiobotia naktongensis was executed against declining the gene diversity of the fish after the construction of Youngju Dam in a sand-bed stream (Naeseongcheon Stream). We tried to move the populations of G. naktongensis from submerged planned sites to alternative habitats, bred artificially and augmented the juveniles to optimal habitat, and monitored the results of the restoration implementation. No entity of G. naktongensis was confirmed at the planned submerged sites despite attempting to capture more than 8 times and eventually the movement to alternative habitat could not be implemented. About 40 individuals of G. naktongensis were captured in the Naeseongcheon Stream and a total of 5,000 individuals were artificially spawned up. The population of juvenile inherited the genetic diversity from the brood stock. The bred juveniles were discharged at the selected optimal site that had a habit condition what was similar to their natural habitat. The micro-dispersion around the discharging area was found at the early stages of the augmentation. The re-capturing rate of discharged juveniles was reduced as time passed. The discharged juveniles seemed to adapt to the natural environment of Naeseongcheon Stream. The observation of their high abdominal distension and excrement demonstrated that the juveniles fed successfully in the discharging area. Therefore, securement of genetic homogeneity and enhancement of restoration population of G. naktongensis in upstream and downstream of Youngju Dam site from the artificial seed producing seemed to be primarily successful and long-term monitoring and analysis of the effect was expected to be necessary.