• KDI Journal of Economic Policy
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• v.12 no.3
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• pp.27-45
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• 1990

Two opposing views prevail regarding the economic impact of rural out-migration on the rural areas of origin. The optimistic neoclassical view argues that rapid rural out-migration is not detrimental to the income and welfare of the rural areas of origin, whereas Lipton (1980) argues the opposite. We developed our own alternative model for rural to urban migration, appropriate for rapidly developing economies such as Korea's. This model, which adopts international trade theories of nontraded goods and Dutch Disease to rural to urban migration issues, argues that rural to urban migration is caused mainly by two factors: first, the unprofitability of farming, and second, the decrease in demand for rural nontraded goods and the increase in demand for urban nontraded goods. The unprofitability of farming is caused by the increase in rural wages, which is induced by increasing urban wages in booming urban manufacturing sectors, and by the fact that the cost increases in farming cannot be shifted to consumers, because farm prices are fixed worldwide and because the income demand elasticity for farm products is very low. The demand for nontraded goods decreases in rural and increases in urban areas because population density and income in urban areas increase sharply, while those in rural areas decrease sharply, due to rapid rural to urban migration. Given that the market structure for nontraded goods-namely, service sectors including educational and health facilities-is mostly in monopolistically competitive, and that the demand for nontraded goods comes only from local sources, the urban service sector enjoys economies of scale, and can thus offer services at cheaper prices and in greater variety, whereas the rural service sector cannot enjoy the advantages offered by scale economies. Our view concerning the economic impact of rural to urban migration on rural areas of origin agrees with Lipton's pessimistic view that rural out-migration is detrimental to the income and welfare of rural areas. However, our reasons for the reduction of rural income are different from those in Lipton's model. Lipton argued that rural income and welfare deteriorate mainly because of a shortage of human capital, younger workers and talent resulting from selective rural out-migration. Instead, we believe that rural income declines, first, because a rapid rural-urban migration creates a further shortage of farm labor supplies and increases rural wages, and thus reduces further the profitability of farming and, second, because a rapid rural-urban migration causes a further decline of the rural service sectors. Empirical tests of our major hypotheses using Korean census data from 1966, 1970, 1975, 1980 and 1985 support our own model much more than the neoclassical or Lipton's models. A kun (county) with a large out-migration had a smaller proportion of younger working aged people in the population, and a smaller proportion of highly educated workers. But the productivity of farm workers, measured in terms of fall crops (rice) purchased by the government per farmer or per hectare of irrigated land, did not decline despite the loss of these youths and of human capital. The kun having had a large out-migration had a larger proportion of the population in the farm sector and a smaller proportion in the service sector. The kun having had a large out-migration also had a lower income measured in terms of the proportion of households receiving welfare payments or the amount of provincial taxes paid per household. The lower incomes of these kuns might explain why the kuns that experienced a large out-migration had difficulty in mechanizing farming. Our policy suggestions based on the tests of the currently prevailing hypotheses are as follows: 1) The main cause of farming difficulties is not a lack of human capital, but the in­crease in production costs due to rural wage increases combined with depressed farm output prices. Therefore, a more effective way of helping farm economies is by increasing farm output prices. However, we are not sure whether an increase in farm output prices is desirable in terms of efficiency. 2) It might be worthwhile to attempt to increase the size of farmland holdings per farm household so that the mechanization of farming can be achieved more easily. 3) A kun with large out-migration suffers a deterioration in income and welfare. Therefore, the government should provide a form of subsidization similar to the adjustment assistance provided for international trade. This assistance should not be related to the level of farm output. Otherwise, there is a possibility that we might encourage farm production which would not be profitable in the absence of subsidies. 4) Government intervention in agricultural research and its dissemination, and large-scale social overhead projects in rural areas, carried out by the Korean government, might be desirable from both efficiency and equity points of view. Government interventions in research are justified because of the problems associated with the appropriation of knowledge, and government actions on large-scale projects are justified because they required collective action.

• Journal of Korean Society of Rural Planning
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• v.27 no.2
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• pp.13-22
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• 2021

As the measures for solving problems of modern city and farming & fishing villages through mutual cooperation and complementation, this study aims to present an integrated rural area development model by changing the farming & fishing villages from a food production-focused space to a service space for the whole nation including urban residents, into the direction of creating new vitality and jobs in farming & fishing villages. In order to establish a service space that could increase the life quality and happiness of the people, this study presented the K-FARM framework types that would integrate and arrange total four themes such as rental farm, experience farm, stay farm, and management farm. In case when this K-FARM framework is applied to rural areas adjacent to cities, especially farming & fishing villages around innovative cities, there would be great effects such as expansion of exchanges between public institutions and local residents of innovative cities. Especially, the theme model classified into four types could be applied suitable for the characteristics of farming & fishing village development project district that is currently operated. Meanwhile, to realize the construction of K-FARM framework, on top of demand analysis of rental farm, it would be also necessary to additionally analyze the urban residents' demand for experience farm and management farm.

• Journal of the Korean Institute of Landscape Architecture
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• v.40 no.6
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• pp.79-88
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• 2012

The purpose of this study were to classify the Y/N in participating the urban farming and to analyze the intention in farm village experience tourism, reason to participate and non-participation, the positive image and negative image between the urbanite group experience in urban farming and the other group that does not experience it. Questionnaire was implemented to the metropolitan urbanite who visited exemplary field farmhouse and urban recreation space to analyze the comparison of groups that experience or do not experience urban farming. The result of this research is as follows: first, experiencing urban farming are relatively less in willingness to participate in the farm village tourism experience than those who do not experience it. Second, the largest reason to participate in farm village tourism experience is found to be the natural environment of farm village tourism experience that is different from that of the city and the effect on children's education. Third, most answers on the reason for not participating in farm village tourism experience is because of the busy daily life. Fourth, urbanite have positive image in general about farm village tourism experience. Especially, when the comparison between the groups was made, it was showed that the difference in understanding the crops growing and the natural environment difference in the city. Fifth, about the negative image on the farm village tourism experience, it showed the difference in understanding the unfamiliar scenery, shortage of eye catching and fun, and the necessity and cost between the groups. Consequently, this study may be significant in the recognition of the farm village tourism experience on urbanite were checked, it was revealed that Y/N experience in the urban farming made negative influence to the willing.

• Journal of People, Plants, and Environment
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• v.24 no.3
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• pp.257-266
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• 2021

Background and objective: Vertical smart farm (VSF) is an alternative that contributes to solving various problems such as climate change and food shortage. This study focused on the types and awareness of VSF to introduce and diffuse VSF. We aimed to investigate the types of VSF and citizens' awareness on VSF. We analyzed 1) where the smart farm technology could be implemented on a building; 2) what citizens think about VSF; and 3) suggested what is most necessary for the introduction and diffusion of VSF in the future based on citizens' perception. Methods: VSF types were investigated through case studies on VSF in Korea and overseas. Citizens' perception on VSF was investigated through a questionnaire survey. A statistical analysis was conducted with the survey results for implications of the introduction and diffusion of VSF. Results: Four types of VSF were derived: rooftop farms, facade farms, indoor farms, and farms using the whole building. The survey showed that 29.2%, 27.8%, and 22.2% of respondents knew well about urban agriculture, smart farms, and vertical smart farms, respectively. Respondents answered that improving awareness is the most important factor to introduce VSF. According to the statistical analysis, it was determined that education and promotion of the necessity of VSF would be important to diffuse the VSF. Conclusion: VSF can be a solution to a variety of problems we face. The results of this study suggest a direction for the introduction and diffusion of VSF. In order to introduce VSF in the future, additional studies must be conducted on the legal system.

• Journal of People, Plants, and Environment
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• v.22 no.1
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• pp.1-14
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• 2019

This study was designed to examine agro-healing services and programs provided and operated by farms in Korea. The results of the analysis of the agro-healing programs and operation of farms were as follows. The purpose of the operation of farms was to raise productivity by managing farms in a cooperative way through agricultural production, education and healing, and to raise income by processing and selling agricultural products. It was difficult to access farms by public transport and thus visitors had to use their own cars. The size of farms varied. The main resources utilized in the surveyed programs were plants, rural environments and landscapes, and agricultural products. The programs were conducted using resources that were commonly found in rural areas. Facilities on each farm were equipped with facilities (indoor and outdoor learning place, gardens, vegetable gardens, orchards, etc.) and convenience facilities (parking lots, drinking fountains, kiosks, etc.) to support program operation. However, facilities for the handicapped and accommodation facilities were insufficient. The programs operated on each farm utilized agricultural resources, farm produce, and rural resources and were classified into activities such as making, feeling, and growing. The average number of people who operated the family-centered program was 2-3, having qualifications such as welfare horticultural therapists, forest interpreters, experience instructors, and social workers. In addition, they had expertise in medicinal food, dietary life, and social welfare, and they also had essential expertise required to operate programs.

• Korean Journal of Organic Agriculture
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• v.12 no.1
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• pp.67-80
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• 2004

Farm economy is getting worse because of the free trade trends in agriculture sector and unreasonable application of market economy principles to agricultural products. And The worldwide issues of environmental pollution as well as want of food, water and energy make human future be anxious. In addition, consumers raise questions in argument about safety of foods produced by traditional farming or imported. So I propose the urban-rural living community movement(URLCM) as an alternative plan for sustainable domestic agriculture. URLCM based on environmentally friendly agriculture and community consciousness will be able to solve many of present issues on agriculture and rural society through incessant interchanges between urban and rural community. This URLCM has to be basically founded on principles of symbiosis-coexistence and life circulation. So those that have to be driven forward arc organizing producers and consumer cooperatives, making environmentally friendly rural region and products, combining with consumer cooperatives, training the participants and so forth.

• Journal of Agricultural Extension & Community Development
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• v.16 no.3
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• pp.557-586
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• 2009

The objective is to find the classification criteria between urban and rural, and to classify the urban and rural area all the country in Korea. For the research objectives, reviews of related literature and statistical yearbooks were used for finding criteria and analysing data. Through reviewing the literature, some indicators were selected in views of rurality and urbanity, and gathered the data from statistical yearbooks. And factor analysis was used to find first and second factor for classifying region. Six factors as a city surrounding(36%), non-farmer household population ratio(28.1%), cultivated acreage(12.48%), agricultural production surrounding (12.40%), the farm family number change(5.58%) and household number rise and fall(5.54%) were finding. And rurality factors were cultivated acreage, agricultural production surrounding, the farm family number change and household number rise and fall, and urbanity factors were city surrounding and non-farmer household population ratio. Based on the first and second factor loaded amount, four type regional classification was followed.

• Journal of the Korean Institute of Rural Architecture
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• v.11 no.3
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• pp.53-61
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• 2009

In this study, the design characteristics and the cognition characteristics are investigated and conducted a survey of a bus stop, which most affects to the road scenery among the road fixture. and the result follows. The design characteristic of a bus stop is the uniform, as a box or appears urban image strongly which is not conform the Farm-village. The preference of the I image, A image and H image are high but on the other hand the preference of the E image, D image and F image are lower then average. As following conducted cognition characteristics, affirmative image is similar then the Korean traditional loop shape or using natural materials. It appears that the traditional image or the natural image is preferred then urban images by individuality of the Farm-village. Therefore, in the future, the design of the Farm-village bus stop needs to consider an area features and an environmental preservation design when design.

• Journal of Forest and Environmental Science
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• v.35 no.3
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• pp.173-180
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• 2019

This study determined the economic impact of environment-friendly cultivation and the optimal cultivation area of Omija (Korean for Schisandra chinensis Baillon) for full-time farmers by analyzing the management performance of existing Omija cultivators. The study divided the target income into urban household income and Omija farm income, and estimate the optimal cultivation area by substituting the target profit from the cost-volume-profit analysis model. The optimum cultivation area was 1.4 ha for general cultivation, 1.08 ha for organic cultivation, and 1.18 ha for pesticide-free farming cultivation considering the average urban household income as the target, and 0.81 ha for general cultivation, 0.63 ha for organic cultivation, and 0.69 ha for pesticide-free farming, considering the average 2012 farm household income as the target. Therefore, the study reached conclusion that it is necessary to secure the price of Omija farm and stable support for income increase. Therefore, the support plan for income stabilization of Omija farm should be considered. Especially, the central government should provide various policies and financial support to help the optimal cultivation area of Omija Farm.

• Korean Journal of Agricultural Science
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• v.32 no.2
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• pp.127-150
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• 2005

Under the WTO system, the farm size expansion or the existing korean agricultural structure should be improved to cope with farm income decrease and to continue rice cultivation for food security in the future. This study is aimed at identifying optimum farm size under trade liberalization and import and export parity price system of inputs and outputs. The optimum farm size expressed the minimum point of long run average cost is determined as 15.1ha. The farm size to be equalized as urban laborer's income of 37,361 thousand won per year was revealed 30ha. Therefore the G't recommended farm size of 6ha should be changed to 30ha and the concerned policies for agricultural structure improvement also should be changed to more flexibilitiy.