• Journal of Nutrition and Health
• /
• v.43 no.2
• /
• pp.132-140
• /
• 2010

High sodium intake is one of the risk factors for the development of hypertension. According to 2007 Korean National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey, sodium intake of Korean was three times higher than adequate intake (1.5 g/day) recommended by Korean Dietary Reference Intakes. High sodium intake is related to high threshold and preference of salty taste. And zinc status is known to affect taste acuity. The hypothesis of this study is that zinc status is associated with salty taste acuity, preference, sodium intake and blood pressure. The subjects included in this study were 50 men and 41 women aged 20-29 y who did not smoke and not take supplements or medications regularly. Dietary intake data for 3 days were collected by 24-h recall for 1 day and dietary record for 2-days. Salty taste acuity and preference were determined by sensory test. Fasting serum concentration of zinc, height, weight, body composition and blood pressure data were collected. Salt taste preference in high zinc intake group ($\geq$ estimated average requirement, EAR; men-8.1 mg/day, women-7 mg/day) was higher than that in low zinc intake group (< EAR). Salty taste preference was inversely correlated with serum zinc concentration in people with low concentration of serum zinc (${\leqq}\;81\;{\mu}g/dL$)(r = -0.3520, p < 0.05). Diastolic blood pressure was higher in high sodium intake group than in low sodium intake group (p < 0.05), positively correlated with salty taste preference (r = 0.3866, p < 0.05) in subjects with daily zinc intake below the EAR. We conclude that low zinc status may be related to high salty taste preference and high blood pressure in Korean young adults.

• Nutrition Research and Practice
• /
• v.6 no.6
• /
• pp.534-541
• /
• 2012

This study examined salty taste acuity and salty taste preference and sodium intake in relation to zinc nutritional status in 2 rural populations in Korea. And we also examined the main food contributors of their sodium intakes. We enrolled 218 adults (66 men and 152 women) from the Kangneung and Samcheok regions in Korea's Kangwon province in our study conducted from December 2011 to February 2012. Participants from each region were divided into 3 groups based on their serum zinc level (T1: lowest, T2: intermediate, T3: highest). We compared the salty taste acuity and preference, Na index (Dish Frequency Questionnaire for estimation of habitual sodium intake), blood pressure, and intakes of nutrients including sodium by 3 groups of serum zinc level. The results were as follows: a higher serum zinc level indicated a lower sodium intake and Na index (P<0.05). The salty taste acuity was considerably higher for participants from the Kangneung region than those from the Samcheok region (P<0.05). And the serum zinc level was significantly higher in participants from the Kangneung region than those from the Samcheok region (P<0.05). We further divided the participants into 2 groups: those who consumed more zinc than the recommended intake (RI) and the others. We compared salty taste acuity and salty taste preference in the 2 groups. The salty taste threshold and palatable salty taste concentrations were lower for the group with a zinc intake above RI than for the group with zinc intake below the RI. However, the difference was not significant. This study confirms that taste function differs depending on zinc nutritional status. In future, it is required to a large-scale, long-term, prospective study on the correlation between zinc intake, serum zinc levels, and taste perception function and blood pressure.

• Korean Journal of Community Nutrition
• /
• v.27 no.1
• /
• pp.27-35
• /
• 2022

Objectives: The purposes of this study were to compare the degree of sodium reduction practice and estimate sodium intake by salty food preference. Methods: Sodium reduction practices, salty food preferences and estimated sodium intake were surveyed for restaurant owners (n = 80), employees (n = 82) and customers (n = 727) at the restaurants participating in the sodium reduction project in Daegu, Korea. Estimated sodium intake was performed by examining sex, age, body mass index (BMI), salty eating habit and dietary behaviors. Results: The degree of sodium reduction practice was significantly higher in salinity meter use (P < 0.001), low salt seasonings (P < 0.001) and efforts to make the foods as bland as possible overall (P < 0.001) in the restaurants participating in sodium reduction project than in homes (P < 0.001). The degree of sodium reduction practice appeared lower in the high salty food preference group than in the low-preference group in such items as efforts to make the foods as bland as possible overall (P < 0.05) and washing the salty taste and then cooking (P < 0.05). The high-preference group showed high-salt dietary behavior, including eating all the soup until nothing was left (P < 0.05) more than the low-preference group, but low-salt dietary behavior included checking the sodium content in processed foods (P < 0 .0 5) less than the low-preference group. The high-preference group was higher in the soup and stew intake frequency than the low-preference group (P < 0.05) and much lower in nuts (P < 0.05) and fruits (P < 0.05) intake frequency. The high-preference group had a higher salty eating habit (P < 0.05), salty taste assessment (P < 0.05) and estimated sodium intake (P < 0.05) than the low-preference group. Conclusions: The present study showed that the salty food preference was strongly associated with lower sodium reduction practice and higher estimated sodium intake.

• Journal of Community Nutrition
• /
• v.8 no.4
• /
• pp.185-192
• /
• 2006

This study was performed to investigate factors affecting sensitivity and preference for salty tastes of Korean adult females. Sensitivity and preference for salty tastes were determined as detection threshold concentration of NaCl solution and the optimally-preferred NaCl concentration of the bean sprout soup, respectively. A self-administered questionnaire was used to obtain the information regarding general characteristics, self diagnosis of stress, health-related lifestyle practices, dietary habits and food preferences. Dietary intake using 24-hours recall and blood pressure were measured. Salty taste detection thresholds and optimally-preferred NaCl concentrations were 0.0197% and 0.357%, respectively. There was a significant positive correlation between the optimally-preferred salt concentration and age, despite no significant correlation between either sensitivity or preference for salty taste and sodium intake, which was 3,605mg/day. Those who had bread or cereal with milk as breakfast instead of a traditional Korean meal and those who preferred jjigae to soup had significantly higher NaCl preferences for bean sprout soup. Going to bed after midnight and skipping meals (${\geq}3/week$) decreased salty taste sensitivity without reaching statistical significance. Self awareness of one's own health, recent weight changes, family history of hypertension, sleep quality, getting-up time, rate of eating and other food preferences did not affect either perception. Stress level, TV watching, BMI and sodium intake did not have significant correlation to sensitivity or preference. Further research including a large number of well-controlled subjects and more accurate measurement of sodium intake should be directed to find other factors affecting salt preference and sensitivity in order to decrease Na intake and related diseases.

• Journal of Nutrition and Health
• /
• v.49 no.2
• /
• pp.88-98
• /
• 2016

Purpose: We recruited 118 women in their early 20's to examine the relationship between sodium intake and salty taste thresholds and preference. We also examined the association of salty taste preference with sodium-related dietary behaviors and major dishes contributing to sodium intake. Methods: Daily sodium intake was estimated using a 127-item dish-frequency questionnaire. Salty taste thresholds and preference were measured using rating scales using water solution of NaCl and a self-administered questionnaire based on a Likert scale, respectively. Results: Salty taste preference showed positive correlation with daily sodium intake and sodium intake-increasing behaviors, and inverse association with sodium intake-decreasing behaviors, including salt and soy sauce use at the table, the frequency of eating out and home delivery of foods, broth consumption of soup, stew or noodle soup, the use of ready-to-serve or processed foods, fresh vegetable intake, and the accommodating attitude toward bland food. Intake of sodium-contributing dishes, including ramen, spicy soft-tofu stew, radish kimchi, and dishes containing kimchi, also showed positive association with salty taste preference. Unexpectedly, detection and recognition thresholds of salty taste showed no association with salty taste preference, sodium intake, and sodium-related dietary behaviors. Conclusion: These findings suggest that salty taste preference could reflect sodium intake of individuals rather than thresholds of saltiness, and may be used as a simple and effective proxy for usual sodium intake.

• Food Science and Industry
• /
• v.51 no.4
• /
• pp.313-324
• /
• 2018

As excessive intake of salt is regarded as a reason for health problems, the tendency of people to attempt to reduce intake of salt in their everyday lives is on the rise. In Korea, where many people have a higher intake of salt compared to those in other countries, there have been diverse efforts to improve on this eating habit. Protein hydrolysates are chemically, physically hydrolyzed protein that have been widely utilized as a material for not only regular food but health functional food due to have diverse biological effects such as anti-oxidation, anti-inflammation, prevention of diabetes, and regulation of blood pressure. Various amino acids such as glutamic acid, arginine and arginine dipeptides, which exist in the components of protein hydrolysates, have also been recently recognized as being helpful in decreasing the use of salt in foods as they can greatly enhance salty taste when used concurrently with salt due to having both salty and palatable flavors. In the case of protein hydrolysates that decompose soy protein or fish protein such as anchovy, they could reduce consumption of salt by as much as 50% without affecting people's food preferences when applied to food as they boost salty taste by approximately 10% to 70%. Although there are only a few studies on protein hydrolysates as a salty taste enhancer or salt substitute, the results of several studies are indicative of the potential of protein hydrolysates as a salty taste enhancing ingredient.

• Nutrition Research and Practice
• /
• v.7 no.1
• /
• pp.59-65
• /
• 2013

Excessive sodium intake leading to hypertension, stroke, and stomach cancer is mainly caused by excess use of salt in cooking. This study was performed to estimate the salt content in school meals and to compare differences in perceptions related to sodium intake between students and staffs working for school meal service. We collected 382 dishes for food from 24 schools (9 elementary, 7 middle, 8 high schools) in Gyeonggi-do and salt content was calculated from salinity and weight of individual food. The average salt content from elementary, middle, and high school meals were 2.44 g, 3.96 g, and 5.87 g, respectively. The amount of salt provided from the school lunch alone was over 80% of the recommended daily salt intake by WHO. Noodles, stews, sauces, and soups were major sources of salt intake at dish group level, while the most salty dishes were sauces, kimchies, and stir-fried foods. Dietary knowledge and attitude related to sodium intake and consumption frequency of the salty dishes were surveyed with questionnaire in 798 students and 256 staffs working for school meal service. Compared with the staffs, the students perceived school meals salty and the proportions of students who thought school meals were salty increased with going up from elementary to high schools (P < 0.001). Among the students, middle and high school students showed significant propensity for the preference to one-dish meal, processed foods, eating much broth and dipping sauce or seasoning compared with the elementary students, although they had higher nutrition knowledge scores. These results proposed that monitoring salt content of school meals and consideration on the contents and education methods in school are needed to lower sodium intake.

• Nutrition Research and Practice
• /
• v.6 no.3
• /
• pp.238-245
• /
• 2012

This study investigated the preference and intake frequency of a list of 15 commonly available high sodium Malaysian foods/dishes, dis cretionary salt use, and their possible association with demographics, blood pressures and anthropometric measurements among 300 Malaysian university students (114 males, 186 females; 259 ethnic Chinese, 41 Indians; 220 lean, 80 overweight). French fries and instant soup noodle were found to be the most preferred and most frequently consumed salty food, respectively, while salted fish was least preferred and least frequently consumed. Males had a significantly higher intake frequency of at least 6 of the salty foods, but the preference of most salty foods was not significantly different between genders. Ethnic Chinese significantly preferred more and took more frequently traditional and conventional Malaysian foods like asam laksa (a Malaysian salty-sour-spicy noodle in fish stock), salted biscuits and salted vegetable, while Indians have more affinity and frequency towards eating salty Western foods. Body Mass Index was significantly negatively correlated with the intake frequency of canned/packet soup and salted fish while waist circumference was significantly positively correlated with the preference of instant noodle. Also, an increased preference of potato chips and intake frequency of salted biscuits seemed to lead to a decreased WHR. Other than these, all the other overweight/obesity indicators did not seem to fully correlate with the salty food preference and intake frequency. Nevertheless, the preference and intake frequency of asam laksa seemed to be significant negative predictors for blood pressures. Finally, increased preference and intake frequency of high sodium shrimp paste (belacan)-based foods like asam laksa and belacan fried rice seemed to discourage discretionary salt use. In conclusion, the preference and intake frequency of the high sodium belacan-based dish asam laksa seems to be a good predictor for ethnic difference, discretionary salt use and blood pressures.

• Journal of Nutrition and Health
• /
• v.54 no.4
• /
• pp.373-382
• /
• 2021

Purpose: For college students, poor eating habits can cause problems with adult health. This study investigated the status of sweet food intake and the degree of stress in college students in the Seoul and Gyeonggi areas to provide a basis for nutrition education by analyzing the relationship between stress and sugar intake. Methods: The subjects were 760 college students, and the survey was conducted using a questionnaire. Statistical analysis for collected data was performed using SPSS (version 21.0). Results: The stress score showed higher stress in female students. Females had more stress in their employment and study-related problems than males. For changes in food intake under stress, the intake was increased greatly in females than in males. For food preference changes before and after stress, males preferred more spicy foods and less salty foods after stress. After stress, females significantly preferred sweeter and spicier foods and less salty, sour, and bitter foods. The intake of sweet foods by stress factors showed that the intake of snacks was higher under the condition of 'worry, fatigue, and tension', and the intake of beverages was increased significantly under the condition of 'anger and aggression'. Conclusion: Sweet foods were preferred under stress, and the amount of intake was increased. Education on food selection and nutrition information should be provided to prevent health problems that can be developed by the reckless intake of sweet foods. Active guidance is needed for college students to select the proper snacks instead of nutritionally insufficient foods to relieve stress.

• Journal of Nutrition and Health
• /
• v.44 no.6
• /
• pp.537-550
• /
• 2011

This study was conducted to identify behavioral characteristics of salty food intake according to saline sensitivity of adults living in a rural area. Anthropometry and blood pressure were measured and salt intake-related dietary behavior was surveyed by questionnaires through interviews with 402 subjects aged ${\geq}$ 40 years in Chungcheongbuk-Do, Korea. The percentages of overweight and obese among the subjects were 37.8% and 3.8% respectively. Mean blood pressure of the subjects was in the normal range, but the distribution of subjects who were normotensive, high normal, and hypertensive was 48.7%, 17.7%, and 33.6% respectively. Approximately 27% of all subjects habitually consumed salty food, which was the smallest group, followed by 38.1% normal and 35.1% not-salty food. However, 34.6% of the eldest group of ${\geq}$ 65 years consumed salty food. The saline insensitive group showed a higher percentage of irregular meals, overeating, speed-eating, an unbalanced diet, a preference for fried food, and habitual intake of salty foods. These subjects recognized the risk for eating salty food, but they lacked the will to reduce their salty food intake. Compared to spouses and family members, experts such as doctors, nurses, and dieticians were the most influential for reducing the salty food intake of subjects. Saline sensitive group had relatively better control over salty food intake at every meal, eating out, and even when eating salty food that the spouse preferred. The saline sensitive group ate more frequently vegetables and fruits, whereas the saline insensitive group ate more frequently hot spicy foods. In conclusion, the results suggest that it is necessary to establish a social atmosphere toward reducing salt intake at the level of the government and food industry and to set action plans to be available for nutrition education programs to reduce salt intake nationwide.