• Journal of Community Nutrition
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• v.8 no.4
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• pp.185-192
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• 2006

This study was performed to investigate factors affecting sensitivity and preference for salty tastes of Korean adult females. Sensitivity and preference for salty tastes were determined as detection threshold concentration of NaCl solution and the optimally-preferred NaCl concentration of the bean sprout soup, respectively. A self-administered questionnaire was used to obtain the information regarding general characteristics, self diagnosis of stress, health-related lifestyle practices, dietary habits and food preferences. Dietary intake using 24-hours recall and blood pressure were measured. Salty taste detection thresholds and optimally-preferred NaCl concentrations were 0.0197% and 0.357%, respectively. There was a significant positive correlation between the optimally-preferred salt concentration and age, despite no significant correlation between either sensitivity or preference for salty taste and sodium intake, which was 3,605mg/day. Those who had bread or cereal with milk as breakfast instead of a traditional Korean meal and those who preferred jjigae to soup had significantly higher NaCl preferences for bean sprout soup. Going to bed after midnight and skipping meals (${\geq}3/week$) decreased salty taste sensitivity without reaching statistical significance. Self awareness of one's own health, recent weight changes, family history of hypertension, sleep quality, getting-up time, rate of eating and other food preferences did not affect either perception. Stress level, TV watching, BMI and sodium intake did not have significant correlation to sensitivity or preference. Further research including a large number of well-controlled subjects and more accurate measurement of sodium intake should be directed to find other factors affecting salt preference and sensitivity in order to decrease Na intake and related diseases.

• Korean Journal of Community Nutrition
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• v.18 no.4
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• pp.402-412
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• 2013

The purpose of this study was to evaluate the effectiveness of nutrition education and counseling on the salty taste assessment, nutrition knowledge and dietary attitude of 21 hemodialysis patients. Five times of the nutrition education and three times of nutrition counseling were performed for a period of 5 months. Biochemical analysis revealed that creatinine was significantly high (p < 0.001), blood urea nitrogen and serum albumin were significantly low (p < 0.05, p < 0.01) and Na, K, Cl, K, P and uric acid were not significantly different. The distribution rate of unsalty taste preference were significantly high and the distribution rate of salty taste preference were significantly low after nutrition education and counseling (p < 0.001). Nutrition knowledge significantly improved following 5th month of education and counseling (p < 0.01). Particularly, the scores for questions related to sodium were improved. The dietary attitude was significantly improved during the counseling period (p < 0.05). There were improvements in responses to 'use food exchange list on diet' and 'habitually add salt or soy sauce before the meal'. According to these results, salty taste assessment, nutrition knowledge and dietary attitude were significantly improved by the hemodialysis diet therapy practices of hemodialysis patients. Therefore, we conclude that there was a need for low-salt diet education and nutrition counseling to help them recognize the taste of low-salt foods and strive towards a preference for less salty tasting foods and the consumption of a low-salt diet.

• Journal of the Korean Society of Food Culture
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• v.32 no.1
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• pp.52-57
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• 2017

The feasibility of reduction of sodium intake using sun-dried salt and monosodium glutamate (MSG) was studied. Preference test was performed to evaluate the sensory properties of bean-sprout soup and vegetable rice porridge soup. Sun-dried salt and MSG might be a partial substitute for refined salt. There was a significant difference in salt taste strength between sun-dried salt and refined salt. Sun-dried salts 0.45% with MSG 0.07% resulted in the highest taste preference compared to that of sun-dried salts 0.60% without MSG in bean-sprout soup, which resulted in 23.9% reduction of sodium intake. Sun-dried salts 0.38% with MSG 0.04% resulted in the highest taste preference compared to sun-dried salts 0.53% without MSG in vegetable rice porridge soup, which resulted in 25.4% reduction of sodium intake. There seemed to be a synergistic effect on reduced usage of sodium salt when MSG was used in vegetable rice porridge and bean-sprout soup with sun-dried salt.

• Korean Journal of Community Nutrition
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• v.13 no.2
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• pp.216-227
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• 2008

The purpose of this study was to develop a nutrition education program for dietary salt reduction using various nutrition education materials. The effect of a 5-week nutrition education program on salty taste assessment, nutrition knowledge, salt attitude for a high-salt diet, salt content in food, and individual satisfaction with the salt concentration of meals during the education period was evaluated. Nutrition education materials included two animations, a pamphlet, panels, and a website, as well as other training resources. Subjects participating in this study were 335 employees (164 male, 171 female) at 15 foodservice operations in Daegu. Preference for higher levels of salty taste and food containing higher amounts of salt were lowered. Knowledge regarding the necessity for dietary salt reduction was higher (p < 0.001) than before nutrition education, and salt content in a meal was reduced. As the program progressed, average salt concentrations of soups were significantly lowered (p < 0.05), and there was greater satisfaction with the lower concentration (p < 0.001). This was a positive indication of the program's success. In addition, it was found that subjects who participated in the program several times have changed their preference to lower levels of salty taste and have increased their nutrition knowledge (p < 0.05, p < 0.001). Thus, the positive effect of this 5-week nutrition education program developed for, and applied to, foodservice employees, concerning dietary salt reduction was confirmed.

• Journal of Nutrition and Health
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• v.43 no.2
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• pp.132-140
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• 2010

High sodium intake is one of the risk factors for the development of hypertension. According to 2007 Korean National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey, sodium intake of Korean was three times higher than adequate intake (1.5 g/day) recommended by Korean Dietary Reference Intakes. High sodium intake is related to high threshold and preference of salty taste. And zinc status is known to affect taste acuity. The hypothesis of this study is that zinc status is associated with salty taste acuity, preference, sodium intake and blood pressure. The subjects included in this study were 50 men and 41 women aged 20-29 y who did not smoke and not take supplements or medications regularly. Dietary intake data for 3 days were collected by 24-h recall for 1 day and dietary record for 2-days. Salty taste acuity and preference were determined by sensory test. Fasting serum concentration of zinc, height, weight, body composition and blood pressure data were collected. Salt taste preference in high zinc intake group ($\geq$ estimated average requirement, EAR; men-8.1 mg/day, women-7 mg/day) was higher than that in low zinc intake group (< EAR). Salty taste preference was inversely correlated with serum zinc concentration in people with low concentration of serum zinc (${\leqq}\;81\;{\mu}g/dL$)(r = -0.3520, p < 0.05). Diastolic blood pressure was higher in high sodium intake group than in low sodium intake group (p < 0.05), positively correlated with salty taste preference (r = 0.3866, p < 0.05) in subjects with daily zinc intake below the EAR. We conclude that low zinc status may be related to high salty taste preference and high blood pressure in Korean young adults.

• Journal of Nutrition and Health
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• v.42 no.4
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• pp.350-357
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• 2009

The purpose of this paper was to evaluate the effectiveness of a salt reduction education program. Subjects participating in this study were 251 employees (166 in the "educated" group, 85 in the "non-educated" group) at 8 hospital and industry food service operations in Daegu. After the salt reduction education program was carried out, a salty taste assessment of both groups was conducted. The educated group had statistically significant differences and the noneducated group did not have statistically significant differences. In terms of nutrition knowledge, while the nutrition knowledge of the educated group was increased (p < 0.001), that of the non-educated group rose at a rate of 0.92. In terms of dietary attitude, the educated group exhibited increased preference toward less salty foods when compared to the noneducated group (p < 0.001). Regarding dietary behavior, the score of the educated group was improved (p < 0.001), thereby indicating a preference for less salty taste. This means that nutrition education had influence on dietary behavior. However, after education, sodium excretion for the educated group was not significantly decreased, compared to before education. The results show that there was a positive correlation between salty taste assessment and dietary attitude and behavior for a high-salt diet. There was a positive relationship between attitude for a high-salt diet and sodium intake; when people prefere a more salty taste, they eat more sodium. Therefore, in order to change dietary preference away from salty taste and to decrease sodium intake, a nationwide, systematic and continuous salt reduction education program is needed.

• Asian Pacific Journal of Cancer Prevention
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• v.15 no.13
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• pp.5293-5298
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• 2014

To investigate the association between salt processed food and gastric cancer, a hospital based case-control study was conducted in a high risk area of China. One hundred and seven newly diagnosed cases with histological confirmation of gastric cancer and 209 controls were recruited. Information on dietary intake was collected with a validated food frequency questionnaire. Unconditional logistic regression was applied to estimate the odds ratios with adjustment for other potential confounders. Comparing the high intake group with never consumption of salt processed foods, salted meat, pickled vegetables and preserved vegetables were significantly associated with increased risk of gastric cancer. Meanwhile, salt taste preference in diet showed a dose-response relationship with gastric cancer. Our results suggest that consumption of salted meat, pickled and preserved vegetables, are positively associated with gastric cancer. Reduction of salt and salt processed food in diets might be one practical measure to preventing gastric cancer.

• Journal of Nutrition and Health
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• v.30 no.6
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• pp.669-678
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• 1997

This study was designed to estimate the sodium intake of preschool children . To determine the sodium intake & excretion of preschool children in Korea, dietary behaviors, anthropometry, intakes of dietary nutrients, urinary sodium excretion and preference for salty foods were measured in 42 preschool children (male 26 , female 16, average6.5 years old) and their mothers. The results are summarized as follows. Mean daily urinary sodium excretion was 52.7 mEq(1,212.1mg). This value did not show remarkable change compared with the other studied that were accomplished in the similarage group for about the last ten years. And the subjects showed lower preference for salty taste than those of elementary school children and adults. Mean daily lower preference for salty taste than those of elementary school children and adults. Mean daily urinary sodium excretion were significantly correlated with the frequency of eating out (p<0.01), potassium intake(p<0.001) and urinary sodium to potassium excretion ratio(p<0.001). But there weren't any correlations with mean daily sodium intake, blood pressure, dietary nutrients intake and the preference for salty taste.

• Korean Journal of Community Nutrition
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• v.18 no.6
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• pp.555-564
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• 2013

The purpose of this study was to compare and analyze the assessment of salty taste and high-salt dietary behaviors of Korean university students and their Chinese counterparts. The researchers developed a taste assessment computer program focusing on preference for salty taste, and it was applied to 300 university students, including 100 Korean students, and 100 Chinese students in Daegu of South Korea, and 100 Chinese students in Shenyang of China (144 males and 156 females). The results of the taste assessment of Chinese and Korean university students are as follows. Among males, Koreans (36.0%), Chinese students in Korea (36.2%), and Chinese (40.4%) scored highest in the "a bit salty" followed by "normal." Among females, Koreans (36.0%), Chinese students in Korea (49.1%), and Chinese (28.3%) scored highest in the "normal". In terms of salt concentration in solution, among the male subjects, most Koreans favored the salt concentration of 0.31%, which is considered to be a "normal" concentration; most Chinese students in Korea favored 0.63%, which is considered to be "a bit salty", and most Chinese favored the concentration of 1.25%, which is considered to be "salty". As for the female subjects, Koreans, Chinese students studying abroad, and Chinese favored 0.31%, the "normal" level of concentration. Korean students scored higher than Chinese students in Korea and Chinese students both in males and females (p < 0.001, p < 0.01), in terms of high-salt dietary behaviors favored salty taste. This study suggests that Chinese university students need nutrition education in terms of modifying eating behaviors to reduce dietary salt intake.

• Journal of Nutrition and Health
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• v.20 no.1
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• pp.1-9
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• 1987

It was the purpose of this study to determine if the changes in the sense of taste occur with the periods of the menstrual cycle in 14 women aged 20 to 22 years. Results showed that the perceived intensity responses to different suprathreshold salt concentrations and the ad libitum salting level in soybean sprout soup did not differ significantly according to the different periods of the menstrual cycle. But women in the three or five days period previous to menstruation were sensi\ulcornertive at the lower salt concentration of 0.25%, but, on the contrary, were insensitive at the higher concentration of 1.25%, with increasing ad libitum salt preference in soybean sprout soup. Also, they were more or less high in the intensity slopes of perceived saltiness on the linear regression. The data suggests that a physiological mechanism for increasing salt intake may develop during the three or five days right before menstruation.