• Journal of Food Hygiene and Safety
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• v.22 no.4
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• pp.382-387
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• 2007

The approval of use of certain food-grade phosphates as food additives in a wide variety of meat products greatly stimulated research on the applications of phosphates in foods. Phytic acid is a natural plant inositol hexaphosphate constituting 1-5% of most cereals, nuts, legumes, oil seeds, pollen, and spores. In this study, we investigated antibacterial activity of sodium phytate (SPT) against Salmonella typhimurium in tryptic soy broth with different pHs and in chicken, pork and beef. In tryptic soy broth, SPT at the concentrations of 0.1, 0.5, and 1.0% effectively inhibited the growth of Salmonella typhymurium in a concentration-dependent manner. At pH 5.5-7.0 similar to meat pHs, 1% SPT almost completely inhibited the bacterial growth. The inhibitory effect of SPT was stronger at pH 7.0 than pH 5.5. In chicken, pork, and beef, SPT at the concentrations of 0.1, 0.5, and 1% significantly inhibited the growth of Salmonella typhimurium in a dose-dependant manner (p<0.01). The addition of 1% SPT in the meats significantly increased the meat pHs. These results indicate that SPT is very effective for inhibition of bacterial growth as a muscle food additive for increasing food safety and functions.

• Journal of Food Hygiene and Safety
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• v.22 no.1
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• pp.37-44
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• 2007

The approval of use of certain food-grade phosphates as food additives in a wide variety of meat products greatly stimulated research on the applications of phosphates in foods. Although phosphates have never been classified as antimicrobial agents, a number of investigators have reported that phosphates have antimicrobial activities. Phytic acid is a natural plant inositol hexaphosphate constituting 1-5% of most cereals, nuts, legumes, oil seeds, pollen, and spores. In this study, we investigated antibacterial activities of sodium phytate(SPT), sodium pyrophosphate (SPP), sodium tripolyphosphate (STPP) on Escherichia coli O157:H7 on tryptic soy broth and in beef, pork and chicken. In tryptic soy broth, SPT, SPP and STPP at the concentrations of 0.05, 0.1, and 0.5% effectively inhibited the growth of Escherichia coli O157:H7 in a concentration-dependent manner. The bactericidal activity of SPT was the stronger than that of SPP or STPP at the same concentrations. In addition, the antibacterial effects of SPT, SPP and STPP at the concentrations of 0.05, 0.1, 0.3, and 0.5% on Escherichia coli O157:H7 were also investigated in raw or cooked meats including beef, pork and chicken. SPT, SPP and STPP significantly inhibited the bacterial growth in a dose-dependant manner (p<0.05). The bactericidal effect of SPT was stronger than that of SPP or STPP. The addition of SPT, SPP and STPP in meats increased meat pHs. SPP and STPP also increased the levels of soluble orthophosphate in meats but STP did not. These results indicate that SPT is very effective for inhibition of bacterial growth and that can be used as a muscle food additive for increasing functions of meats.

• Journal of agriculture & life science
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• v.46 no.1
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• pp.133-139
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• 2012

The objective of this study was to investigate the relationship between color grade in Korea Institute for Animal Products Quality Evaluation (KAPE) and instrumental color values ($L^*$, $a^*$, $b^*$, ${\Delta}C$ and H) in porcine longissimus dorsi muscle. A total of 538 pigs were selected to classify and to measure the instrumental color values from commercial public slaughter house. All of the instrumental color traits were decreased with increase of color grade (p<0.05). The color grade 1 group had the highest $L^*$ value (65.23) and the color grade 6 group had the lowest $L^*$ value (45.29) among the color grade groups (p<0.05). The color grade had the negative correlation with all the instrumental color traits (p<0.001) and the correlation coefficient between color grade and $L^*$ value was -0.83. In conclusion, instrumental color traits is highly related to color grade, and especially $L^*$ value is an important indicator for both porcine carcass grading and color grading systems in KAPE.

• Asian-Australasian Journal of Animal Sciences
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• v.31 no.5
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• pp.696-704
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• 2018

Objective: This study was conducted to evaluate various levels of milk by-product in weaning pig diet on growth performance, blood profiles, carcass characteristics and economic performance for weaning to finishing pigs. Methods: A total of 160 weaning pigs ([Yorkshire${\times}$Landrace]${\times}$Duroc), average $7.01{\pm}1.32kg$ body weight (BW), were allotted to four treatments by BW and sex in 10 replications with 4 pigs per pen in a randomized complete block design. Pigs were fed each treatment diet with various levels of milk by-product (Phase 1: 0%, 10%, 20%, and 30%, Phase 2: 0%, 5%, 10%, and 15%, respectively). During weaning period (0 to 5 week), weaning pigs were fed experimental diets and all pigs were fed the same commercial feed during growing-finishing period (6 to 14 week). Results: In the growth trial, BW, average daily gain (ADG), and average daily feed intake (ADFI) in the nursery period (5 weeks) increased as the milk by-product level in the diet increased (linear, p<0.05). Linear increases of pig BW with increasing the milk product levels were observed until late growing period (linear, p = 0.01). However, there were no significant differences in BW at the finishing periods, ADG, ADFI, and gain:feed ratio during the entire growing-finishing periods. The blood urea nitrogen concentration had no significant difference among dietary treatments. High inclusion level of milk by-product in weaner diet decreased crude protein (quadratic, p = 0.05) and crude ash (Linear, p = 0.05) of Longissimus muscle. In addition, cooking loss and water holding capacity increased with increasing milk product levels in the weaner diets (linear, p<0.01; p = 0.05). High milk by-product treatment had higher feed cost per weight gain compared to non-milk by-products treatment (linear, p = 0.01). Conclusion: Supplementation of 10% to 5% milk by-products in weaning pig diet had results equivalent to the 30% to 15% milk treatment and 0% milk by-product supplementation in the diet had no negative influence on growth performance of finishing pigs.

• Asian-Australasian Journal of Animal Sciences
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• v.25 no.12
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• pp.1759-1767
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• 2012

This study was performed to determine the effects of dietary fat sources, i.e., beef tallow, soybean oil, olive oil and coconut oil (each 3% in feed), on the growth performance, meat quality and gene expression in growing-finishing pigs. A total of 72 crossbred pigs (Landrace${\times}$Large White${\times}$Duroc) were used at $71{\pm}1$ kg body weight (about 130 d of age) in 24 pens ($320{\times}150$ cm) in a confined pig house (three pigs per pen) with six replicate pens per treatment. The growing diet was given for periods of $14{\pm}3$ d and the finishing diet was given for periods of $28{\pm}3$ d. The fat type had no significant effect either on growth performance or on chemical composition or on meat quality in growing-finishing pigs. Dietary fat type affected fatty acid composition, with higher levels of unsaturated fatty acids (UFAs) and monounsaturated fatty acids (MUFAs) in the olive oil group. Microarray analysis in the Longissimus dorsi identified 6 genes, related to insulin signaling pathway, that were differentially expressed among the different feed groups. Real time-PCR was conducted on the six genes in the longissimus dorsi muscle (LM). In particular, the genes encoding the protein kinase, cAMP-dependent, regulatory, type II, alpha (PRKAR2A) and the catalytic subunit of protein phosphatase 1, beta isoform (PPP1CB) showed the highest expression level in the olive oil group (respectively, p<0.05, p<0.001). The results of this study indicate that the type of dietary fat affects fatty acid composition and insulin signaling-related gene expression in the LM of pigs.

• Asian-Australasian Journal of Animal Sciences
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• v.26 no.7
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• pp.1021-1029
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• 2013

To investigate the effect of dietary chromium (Cr) as Cr methionine (CrMet) on growth performance, carcass traits, pork quality, meat colour and expression of meat colour-related genes in growing-finishing pigs, 189 crossbred Duroc${\times}$(Landrace${\times}$Yorkshire) growing-finishing pigs (male, castrated, average initial BW $74.58{\pm}1.52$ kg) were selected and randomly allocated into four groups. Dietary treatments per kg of feed were as follows: 0 (CT), 0.3 mg/kg (T1), 0.6 mg/kg (T2) and 0.9 mg/kg (T3) Cr (in the form of CrMet; as-fed basis), and each treatment was replicated five times with 8 to 10 pigs per replicate pen. During the 28 d of the experiment, both the ADG and the ADFI increased linearly (p<0.05) as the level of dietary Cr increased. The F/G ratio decreased linearly (p<0.05). As dietary Cr increased, loin muscle areas (linear, p = 0.013) and average backfat thickness (linear, p = 0.072) decreased. Shear force (linear, p = 0.070) and Commission Internationale de I'$\acute{E}$clairage (CIE) redness (quadratic, p = 0.028) were increased. In addition, CIE Lightness (quadratic, p = 0.053) were decreased as dietary Cr increased. As dietary Cr increased, total myglobin (Mb) content (quadratic, p = 0.015) and the mb mRNA levels (quadratic, p = 0.046) in longissimus muscles of pigs were up-regulated. In conclusion, supplementation of dietary Cr improved growth and meat colour, but increased shear force and decreased IMF reduced palatability of longissimus muscles. Moreover, the increasing total Mb content and mb mRNA levels indicated that CrMet dietary supplementation may improve meat colour via up-regulating expression of the mb gene.

• Asian-Australasian Journal of Animal Sciences
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• v.18 no.3
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• pp.414-419
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• 2005

The current study was conducted to investigate the effects of dietary chitosan-alginate-Fe(II) complex (CAFC) supplementation on carcass and meat qualities of pig m. longissimus during chiller ageing. One hundred and twenty-two LYD (Landrace${\times}$Yorkshire${\times}$Duroc) pigs were sampled from an industrial population. Seventy-four pigs (32 gilts and 42 barrows) were administered 3 ml of dietary supplementation of CAFC per day from 25 to 70 days of age, while the remaining 48 pigs (20 gilts and 28 barrows) were fed the same commercial feeding regime without the supplementation. For assessing the dietary effects on pH, objective meat color, cooking loss, water-holding capacity (WHC), thiobarbituric acid reactive substances (TBARS), volatile basic nitrogen (VBN) and fatty acid composition during ageing, 20 barrows (10 of each treatment) were randomly sampled, and aged for 3, 7, 12, 16, 20 and 25 days in a $1^{\circ}C$ chiller. The results showed that CAFC-fed pigs required approximately 10 fewer feeding days than the control group. Furthermore, the treatment resulted in greatly higher carcass grade whereby the grade A was increased by approximately 35% and 7% for gilts and barrows, respectively. The treatment had no significant effect (p>0.05) on pH, meat color and WHC during ageing. On the other hand, the CAFC-fed pigs showed significantly (p<0.05) lower TBARS values from 20 days of storage. In addition, the sum of unsaturated fatty acids for the treated group was significantly (p<0.05) higher than that for the control group after the storage time. This implied that CAFC supplementation could reduce the formation of free radicals in fatty acids (i.e., lipid oxidation). The treatment also significantly (p<0.05) retarded VBN formation during ageing, indicating a significant reduction in protein degradation. However, as there was no difference in pH between the two groups, the result raised a possibility that antibacterial activity of the CAFC alone could cause reduction in the formation of TBARS and VBN. In this regard, although the treatment effectively slowed down the formation of TBARS and TBA during chiller ageing, it was not resolved whether that was associated with the direct effect of the antioxidant function of chitosan and/or alginate, or a consequence of their antibacterial functions.

• Asian-Australasian Journal of Animal Sciences
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• v.14 no.4
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• pp.515-524
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• 2001

Two experiments using growing and finishing pigs (Landrace$\times$Duroc$\times$Yorkshire) were conducted to determine the effects of different levels of vitamins and trace minerals (VTM) on growth performance, nutrient digestibility, carcass characteristics and meat quality of growing-finishing pigs, and to evaluate the suitability of vitamin-mineral levels commonly used in the swine industry in Korea. A total of 120 three crossbred (Landrace$\times$Duroc$\times$Yorkshire) growing (Experiment I: 20.90 0.44 kg average initial body weight) and finishing (Experiment II: 53.55 0.97 kg average initial body weight) were used in 6 and 9 weeks feeding trials, respectively. Pigs were allotted on the basis of sex and weight to 5 treatments with 6 replications per treatment with 4 pigs per pen in a completely randomized block design. Treatments were: 1) control, 2) fat soluble vitamin 200% vs. control, 3) water soluble vitamin 200% vs. control, 4) trace mineral 50% vs. control, 5) trace mineral 200% vs. control. In experiment I, during the overall experimental period (0 to 6 weeks, 21 to 54 kg body weight), ADG of the 200% trace mineral supplemented group was significantly higher than that of the 50% trace mineral supplemented group. There were no significant differences among other the treatments. Digestibility of crude protein was lowest in mineral 50% supplemented group (p<0.05). Calcium digestibility was significantly higher in the 200% fat soluble vitamin supplemented group than in the other treatments (p<0.05). In experiment II, during the overall experimental period (0 to 9 weeks, 54 to 106 kg body weight), growth performance was not significantly affected by dietary vitamin and trace mineral levels. However, increasing level of water soluble vitamins at the level of 200% compared to control had a tendency to improve the overall growth performance. Overall carcass characteristics except for carcass length did not differ among pigs fed the dietary treatments. Loin eye area, pH, drip loss and shear force of meat were not affected by dietary vitamin and trace mineral levels. There was a trend for less fat content (%) in pork when the level of vitamin and trace mineral was increased, but the difference was not significant. Flavor score was the lowest in control and highest in the 200% fat soluble vitamin supplemented group (p<0.05). Juiciness of muscle was lower in the 200% fat soluble vitamin supplemented group than other dietary treatments, except for trace mineral 50% supplemented group (p<0.05). Based on these results, it is suggested that "typical" commercial levels of vitamin and trace minerals used by feed companies in Korea are sufficient to meet requirement for the maximum growth of growing-finishing pigs. Our results suggests that a reduction in trace mineral levels in commercial diets could be considered to reduce feed cost and nutrient excretion with economic and environmental benefits.

• Asian-Australasian Journal of Animal Sciences
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• v.25 no.4
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• pp.531-540
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• 2012

Pigs from four sire lines were allocated to a series of low energy (LE, 3.15 to 3.21 Mcal ME/kg) corn-soybean meal-based diets with 16% wheat midds or high energy diets (HE, 3.41 to 3.45 Mcal ME/kg) with 4.5 to 4.95% choice white grease. All diets contained 6% DDGS. The HE and LE diets of each of the four phases were formulated to have equal lysine:Mcal ME ratios. Barrows (N = 2,178) and gilts (N = 2,274) were fed either high energy (HE) or low energy (LE) diets from 27 kg BW to target BWs of 118, 127, 131.5 and 140.6 kg. Carcass primal and subprimal cut weights were collected. The cut weights and carcass measurements were fitted to allometric functions (Y = A $CW^B$) of carcass weight. The significance of diet, sex or sire line with A and B was evaluated by linearizing the equations by log to log transformation. The effect of diet on A and B did not interact with sex or sire line. Thus, the final model was cut weight = (1+$b_D$(Diet)) A($CW^B$) where Diet = -0.5 for the LE and 0.5 for HE diets and A and B are sire line-sex specific parameters. Diet had no affect on loin, Boston butt, picnic, baby back rib, or sparerib weights (p>0.10, $b_D$ = -0.003, -0.0029, 0.0002, 0.0047, -0.0025, respectively). Diet affected ham weight (bD = -0.0046, p = 0.01), belly weight (bD = 0.0188, p = 0.001) three-muscle ham weight ($b_D$ = -0.014, p = 0.001), boneless loin weight (bD = -0.010, p = 0.001), tenderloin weight ($b_D$ = -0.023, p = 0.001), sirloin weight ($b_D$ = -0.009, p = 0.034), and fat-free lean mass ($b_D$ = -0.0145, p = 0.001). Overall, feeding the LE diets had little impact on primal cut weight except to decrease belly weight. Feeding LE diets increased the weight of lean trimmed cuts by 1 to 2 percent at the same carcass weight.

• Food Science and Preservation
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• v.14 no.3
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• pp.247-255
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• 2007

This study compared the quality characteristics, including aroma, of M. longissimus from five Korean native black barrows(64 kg, KNP) and five modem genotype barrows($Landrace{\times}Yorkshire{\times}Duroc$, 114 kg, MGP), during vacuum packaged-chilling. The samples were vacuum packaged, stored at $2{\pm}0.3^{\circ}C$ for 12 days, and then subjected to quality measurement. The KNP had higher fat content than did MGP(p<0.05), but KNP contained lower C14:0, C18:3 and C20:5 concentrations than did MGP(p<0.05). The KNP showed lower pH values(p<0.05) and water-holding capacities than did MGP, and were redder in color than MGP during storage. The TBARS increased more quickly in KNP than in MGP samples during storage. In texture, KNP showed firmer muscle tone than did MGP during storage(p<0.05). Various aroma compounds including 3-methyl-l-butanol, 2-ethyl hexanol and m-xylene were detected with SPME-GC/MS after 12 days of storage, and aroma patterns of KNP and MGP, obtained with an electronic nose, differed during storage.