• Korean Journal of Community Nutrition
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• v.29 no.1
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• pp.65-80
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• 2024

Objectives: This study aims to compare changes in physical factors, health behaviors, eating habits, and nutritional intake among Korean male and female adults over a period of three years (2019-2021) before and after the outbreak of coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19). Methods: This study utilized raw data from the 8th Korea National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (2019-2021). The participants in this study included 6,235 individuals in 2019, 5,865 individuals in 2020, and 5,635 individuals in 2021. Individuals whose daily energy intake was less than 500 kcal or exceeded 5,000 kcal were excluded from the study. Results: In comparison to 2019, overweight/obesity rates, weight, waist circumference, weekend sleep hours, and resistance exercise days/week increased in both male and female during the COVID-19 pandemic. Regarding eating habits, the proportions of people skipping breakfast, not eating out, consuming health supplements, and recognizing nutritional labels increased in 2020 and 2021, whereas the rate of skipping dinner decreased. Total energy intake has continued to decrease for the two years since 2019. A comparison of nutrient intake per 1,000 kcal before and after the outbreak of COVID-19 revealed that intake of nutrients, including protein, phosphorus, iron, vitamin A, riboflavin, and niacin increased, while folic acid intake decreased. In male, calcium, phosphorus, riboflavin, and niacin intakes increased, whereas iron, vitamin C, and folic acid intakes decreased. In female, phosphorus, iron, vitamin A, and riboflavin intake increased significantly, while protein and niacin intake decreased significantly. Conclusions: After COVID-19, the obesity rate, breakfast skipping rate, health supplement intake, and nutritional label use increased, while the frequency of eating out, dinner skipping rate, and total energy intake decreased. These environmental changes and social factors highlight the need for nutritional education and management to ensure proper nutritional intake and reduce obesity rates in the post-COVID-19 era.

• Journal of Nutrition and Health
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• v.29 no.3
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• pp.331-347
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• 1996

This study was aimed at comparing the dietary pattern of middle school girls according to family type. As for subjects, sixty girls of M middle school of Taejon city were chosen as a total. They were devided into two groups consisted of thirty subjects respectively ; those who live in single mother's family(SMF) and both parent's family(BPF). In this study, intakes of food and nutrient and dietary behaviors of each group were investigated through two-day dietary records and questionnaire. The results obtained in this study were as follows : 1) Mean daily intake of all nuitrients except calcium were more than RDAs in two groups. However, intake of calcium and rtio of Ca / P were lower than RDAs in two groups. And proportion of less than 2/3 of RDAs of calcium were higher than other nutrients. Intake of iron was more than RDAs, but nutritional status of iron might be poorer considering the food sorce of iron taken by subjects. According to family type, girls of SMF seemed to have more serious to have more serious problem in these nutrients than those of BPF. 2) The average distribution ratios of breakfast, lunch, dinner and snack to total calorie intake was 25.2, 31.3, 24.6 and 18.9 in SMF, and 19.7, 33.1, 24.3 and 22.9 in BPF. Thus it proved that lunch contributed more energy intake than any other meal, and that snack was an important means to supply nutrients for girls of two groups. And energy intake through breakfast of SMF was more than BPF. 3) The major dietary problems of two groups were unbalanced diet, missing meal, and overeating. The degree of sharing meal with family was lower in girls of SMF than those of BPF. The degrees of skipping (p<0.05), or irregularity, or preparing meal by girls(P<0.05) in the case of dinner were tended to be more frequent in SMF than BPF. And number of food taken per day was less various in SMF of 15.2 kinds than BPF of 17.1 kinds(P<0.001). As a conclusion, subjects should take more calcium or iron contained food which is well absorved, and eat diverse foods to improve their nutritional status. And it is also necessary that calorie intake through snack should be diminished, and dinner should be eaten regularly and shared with family if possible. In view of family type, girls of SMF proved to have poorer food habit than those of BPF. Thus, these results shows that dietary pattern of girls is different atcording to family type. Therefore, we should carry out nutritional education for girls considering the difference of dietary pattern by family type. In addition, nutritional education for girls of SMF should be regarded more importantly than those of BPF because girls of SMF might have more chance to manage their meal by themselves and also have more dietary problems.

• Journal of Nutrition and Health
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• v.39 no.2
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• pp.160-170
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• 2006

This study was conducted to provide foundation data for making health care policy for married women by assessing the dietary intake between highly educated married, employed and unemployed women. It is a direct interview, cross-sectional study with 24-hour recall method for one day. In selecting the subjects for this study, married, unemployed women were selected from a certain area (Daedeok Science Town) in Daejeon where there are high rates of highly educated women, and the married, employed women were selected from the teaching profession in order to avoid confounding due to including a variety of jobs. According to the Korean Standard Classification of Occupations, teaching is the representational occupation of highly educated, married women. Then, to prevent confounding due to age, we selected the subjects out of each age group at the same rate through random sampling. Women who had not graduated college, worked only part-time, or had no current spouse were excluded. As a result, 486 highly-educated, married, unemployed (250) and employed (236) women were used for analyzing data. The unemployed women consumed a higher amount of fat, cholesterol, sodium, vitamin C and folic acid while the employed women consumed a higher amount of iron, vitamin $B_l$ and vitamin $B_2$. P/M/S ratio being 1/1.18/1.05 and 1/1.05/0.87, for the unemployed women and the employed women, respectively, unemployed respondents had a higher saturated fat intake than those of employed. It is in excess of the standard ratio (1/1/1) of the Korean RDA. At the same time, in unemployed respondents the percent of energy intake from fat (24.8%, 23.2%) and animal fat (12.4%, 11.4%) were higher than those of employed respondents. The mean daily nutrient intake of calcium, zinc, and iron for both groups of respondents were lower than the Korean RDA. Both groups had phosphorus as the highest nutrient and calcium as the lowest nutrient of INQ (Index of Nutritional Quality) while nutrients with the INQ being less than 1 were calcium and iron. To sum up, the following conclusions can be made: Nutrition education and guidance for reduction of the intake of fat, especially animal fat, are necessary for unemployed women. In addition, highly educated, married, unemployed and employed women should increase the consumption of foods rich in iron and calcium to prevent anemia and osteoporosis, while decreasing the intake of phosphorus to balance proportions of calcium and phosphorus.

• Korean Journal of Community Nutrition
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• v.6 no.2
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• pp.182-191
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• 2001

Anemia in women during pregnancy and after delivery has been known to affect the mother, the fetus, and the infant's growth and health status. Studies examining, changes in iron and folate status associated with anemia during pregnancy and during pregnancy, and those supplements are stopped after postpartum. However, the effects of those have not been clearly determined in pregnant and lactating Korea women. Therefore, this study was performed to determine the changes in maternal iron and folate status during pregnancy and six months after delivery longitudinally in six pregnant women who consumed supplements from 20 wk to delivery. We concluded that the iron status deteriorated during pregnancy and especially was weak in the third trimester, but had a tendency to recovery after delivery. On the other hand, the folate status deteriorated in the first and second trimester and was good in the third trimester, but had a tendency to decrease after delivery. These results suggested that the iron status was not improved despite consuming total iron supplements of 50 mg/day through diets and supplements during the second half of the pregnancy. On the other hand, the folate status improved at the end of pregnancy by consuming folate supplements of a total of 800 mg/day through diets and supplements. However, folate status was poor in the first half of the pregnancy, and the tendency of folate status to decrease during postpartum was advanced. At the point in which iron and therefore supplementation is essential. However, the effects of supplement intake time and intake dosage need to be verified and the nutritional status changes of postpartum women should be carefully monitored.

• Journal of Nutrition and Health
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• v.50 no.4
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• pp.350-360
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• 2017

Purpose: This study examined and compared the associations of the iron status and food intake with the blood lead, mercury, and cadmium concentrations among Korean adolescent girls, premenopausal women, and postmenopausal women. Methods: The data from the 2010~2011 Korea National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (KNHANES) was used. The subjects were classified into three groups: adolescent girls (n = 268), premenopausal women (n = 1,157), and postmenopausal women (n = 446). The iron status was assessed by hemoglobin, hematocrit, serum ferritin, and iron concentrations, as well as the total iron binding capacity (TIBC). The food intake was estimated by a food frequency questionnaire. Results: The blood heavy metal concentrations and poisoning rate in postmenopausal women were higher than in the other groups. The iron status in the adolescent girls and postmenopausal women was higher than that in the premenopausal women. In the adolescent girls, the iron status was inversely associated with the blood cadmium concentration. The dairy food intake was inversely related to the blood lead and cadmium concentrations. In premenopausal women, the iron status was inversely associated with the cadmium concentrations. The fish and shellfish food intakes were positively associated with the mercury concentrations. In postmenopausal women, the iron status was positively associated with the mercury and cadmium concentrations. Fast foods and fried foods were inversely associated with the lead concentration. Conclusion: The premenopausal women showed a lower iron status than the adolescent girls and postmenopausal women. The associations of the iron status with the blood heavy metal concentrations were different among the adolescent girls, premenopausal women, and postmenopausal women. In addition, the relationships of the food intakes with the blood heavy metal concentrations differed among adolescent girls, premenopausal women, and postmenopausal women. Further studies will be needed to confirm these findings.

• Journal of Nutrition and Health
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• v.31 no.9
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• pp.1422-1432
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• 1998

This study investigated the nutritional status of 32 CAPD patients. Their weight, height, triceps, mid arm circumference were measured and their dietary intake and the blood profiles were evaluated. They were 56.0${\pm}$11.8 years old. Their intake of energy and protein were 78% and 93% of RDA respectively. The energy from dextrose was 376.1${\pm}$83.2kcal. The men's and women's intake of protein was 84.6% and 102.1% of RDA respectively, According to the distribution of BMI, 23.5% of the men and 6.1% of the women were underweight and 5.9% of the men and 20% of the women were overweight. The serum albumin levels of the men and women were 3.30 and 3.71g/41 respectively. However, the average amount of serum ferritin, as a whole, comes within the normal range, which shows that stored iron was not decreased and that their anemia was not caused by iron deficiency. The subjects were divided into three groups according to the level of albumin, and their intakes of nutrients were compared with one another, The group with the high level of albumin showed that energy and protein intake was significantly larger and that BMI was also significantly higher than the other groups. There was a positive correlation between BMI and energy intake. Serum total protein had a positive correlation to energy intake ; hematocrit, to carbohydrate intake. BMI had a positive correlation to energy intake. A relative magnitude of factors affecting albumin level was analyzed by Stepwise multiple regression analysis. Overall results about relative influence of independent variables to dependent variable(albumin) indicated that the blood total protein(p <0.0001) was the most significantly correlated with serum albumin level in all subjects,1311owe4 by creatinine and total cholesterol. (Korean J Nutrition 31(9) : 1422-1432, 1998)

• Journal of Community Nutrition
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• v.5 no.1
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• pp.44-50
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• 2003

The iron status and its relations with nutrient intake, coffee drinking, and cigarette smoking were evaluated through the blood analysis and 3-day dietary recalls in 102 apparently healthy Korean adults (48 males, 54 menstruating females) aged 20-49 years and living in Daejeon City. Mean values of hemoglobin (Hb) in males and females were 15.5g/dL and 13.2g/dL, mean corpscular hemoglobin concentration (MCHC) 36.0% and 36.8 %, serum iron (SI) 135 $\mu\textrm{g}$/dL and 97 $\mu\textrm{g}$/dL, transferrin saturation (TS) 39.4% and 29.2%, and serum ferritin (Ft) 88.1 $\mu\textrm{g}$/L and 23.4 $\mu\textrm{g}$/L, respectively. For males the prevalences of abnormal values of iron status indicators were 4.2% in Hb, 2.1% in TS, and 4.2% in Ft, and for females 16.7% in Hb, 25.9% in TS, and 35.2% in Ft. Among females 9.3% had abnormal Ft, TS, and Hb, which was considered as iron-defeciency anemia, and 14.8% had abnormal Ft and TS. As a whole, the impaired iron status prevalences were estimated to be 2.1 - 4.2% for males and 9.3 - 35.2% for females. Mean daily intakes of iron and heme-iron were 13.7mg and 1.51mg in males, and 12.3mg and 1.45mg in females. Ft was positively correlated with dietary energy, protein, iron, and vitamin A, Hb with energy and iron, and MCHC with iron and heme iron. Vitamin A also tended to show positive correlations with Hb, SI, and TS. Coffee drinkers taking 3 cups per day or more had higher levels of Hb, MCHC, and Ft in males and MCHC in females, compared to non-coffee drinkers. Higher levels of Hb and MCHC were found in male smokers than in non-smokers. Coffee drinkers took more energy and vitamin A in males and MPF protein in females than non-coffee drinkers. From the above results, it was suggested that the iron status of men was much better than that of women, and the intakes of energy, iron, heme iron, and especially vitamin A were positively associated with the iron status. Cigarette smoking elevated Hb and MCHC, but the effect of coffee drinking on iron staus was not clear. (J Community Nutrition 5(1) : 44∼50, 2003)

• Journal of the Korean Society of Food Science and Nutrition
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• v.30 no.4
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• pp.739-746
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• 2001

To assess the nutrient intakes and diet quality of middle school students living in Kangneung area a dietary survey using th 3-day food record was conducted with 226 subjects. Mean daily energy intake was 2114$\pm$502 kcal with 61.6% of energy supplied by carbohydrate 16.4% by protein and 22.0% by fat. As well as insufficiencies in calcium and iron intakes the bioavailability of calcium and iron consumed is considered to low because most of them came from plant origins. For calcium iron vitamin A and vitamin B$_2$the proportions of subjects with intake levels less than 75% of RDA were all over 46%. The mean adequacy ratio(MAR) an index of overall dietary quality was 0.70 for males and 0.73 for females. The indexes of nutritional quality (INQ) were over 1 for most nutrients except 4 nutrients; 0.48 of calcium 0.64 of iron 0.73 of vitamin A and 0.79 of vitamin B$_2$. Nutrient intake levels less than 75% of RDA may be appropriate as a criteria for insufficiency of nutrient intakes. Based on these results it is evident that some of middle school students in Kangneung area did not consume enough nutrients especially calcium iron and vitamin A.

• Journal of Nutrition and Health
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• v.26 no.6
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• pp.772-782
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• 1993

This study was conducted to assess the relationships between maternal dietary intakes and milk contents of minerals and trace elements, and the correlation among levels of these milk constituents. Maternal dietary intakes were measured and milk samples were collected at 2∼5 days, 2, 4, 6 and 12 weeks postpartum from 29 lactating women. The results obtained are sumarized as follows: 1) The overall mean nutrient intakes of lactating women in this study were below the recommended allowances and there were extensive individual variations between subjects. 2) Concentrations of minerals and trace elements in matured human milk showed the same range reported from different countries with the exception of calcium, magnesium, manganese and molybdenum which were relatively high. 3) There were no significant relationships between maternal dietary intakes of minerals and the corresponding mineral levels of human milk. In addition, no significant correlations were found between maternal vitamin C intake and the iron contents of milk. These were significant positive correlations between maternal calcium intake and the magnesium level of milk ; between maternal protein intake and the contents of zinc and copper in human milk. Maternal energy intake was negatively correlated with milk sodium level. 4) Pearson correlation coefficient showed positive significant relationships between levels of 17 pairs of various mineral and trace elements : sodium and potassium, iron ; potassium and calcium, phosphors, magnesium, iron, copper, manganese ; calcium and magnesium, iron manganese, molybdenm, nickel ; magnesium and iron, molybdenum ; iron and copper ; nickel and manganese.

• Journal of the East Asian Society of Dietary Life
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• v.4 no.2
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• pp.9-16
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• 1994

This study was undertaken to investigate the effects of dietary low (Fe) levels on Fe metabolism of cadmium(Cd) poisoned rats. 40 male Sprague weaning Dawley rats weighing 80-90g were divided into 4 groups(LFe:low Fe, LFeCd:low Fe and Cd, AFe: adequate Fe, AFeCd: adequate Fe and Cd) according to Cd administration(0, 50ppm in drinking water) and Fe levels(Fe:6ppm, 40ppm in diet)for 12 weeks. The food intake and body weight gain of Cd group with low Fe(LFeCd) were significantly lower than those of without Cd group with adequate Fe(AFe)(p<0.01, P<0.05). But there was no significantly difference between Cd groups and without Cd groups in water intake. The blood levels of hemoglobin, hematocrit, and serum levels of Fe of LFeCd were significantly lower than those of AFe(p<0.01, p<0.05, p<0.001). The urinary and fecal excretion of Fe of LFeCd was significantly lower than that of AFe(p<0.05, p0.05). The levels of Fe of liver, spleen in LFeCd were lower than those of AFeCd(p<0.05, p<0.05). These results indicates that adequate iron supplementation to Cd pretreated rats induce protective effects on the reduction of Fe status by Cd poisoning.