• 해양환경안전학회지
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• 제30권2호
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• pp.239-251
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• 2024

본 연구에서는 온실가스 배출을 감축하기 위해 메탄올을 추진 연료로 사용하는 선박에 수소 연료전지 시스템이 추가된 하이브리드 시스템 공정을 설계하였다. Case1에서는 메탄올 연료 엔진 시스템을 설계하여, 엔진에 가솔린 대신 메탄올을 연료로 공급했을 때의 배기가스 배출량을 알아보았다. Case2에서는 Case1에 메탄올 개질 시스템을 추가해, 수소연료전지 시스템을 설계하였다. 이 하이브리드 시스템에서는 그레이 수소를 생산하며, 엔진과 연료전지의 출력을 조합하여 선박을 구동한다. 하지만 그레이 수소는 수소를 생산하는 과정에서 탄소를 배출한다는 단점이 있다. 이 점을 보안하기 위해 Case3에서는 CCU시스템을 추가하였다. Case2에서 배출한 Flue gas의 이산화탄소를 포집한 후, 그레이 수소와 합성해 블루 메탄올을 생산하였다. 본 연구에서는 Case study를 통해 개질 온도220℃, 개질 압력500kPa, SCR은 1.0, flow ratio가 0.7일 때 최적의 운전조건임을 알 수 있었다. Case3의 시스템은 Case1에 비해 탄소 배출량을 42% 감소시켰다. 결과적으로, Case3의 하이브리드 시스템을 통해 선박의 이산화탄소 배출을 유의미하게 저감할 수 있을 것으로 예상한다.

• 한국인쇄학회지
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• 제30권3호
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• pp.89-114
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• 2012

For as to world, the concern about the environment problem is enhanced than any other time in the past because of being 21 century. And the environment problem is highlighted as the world-wide issue. The time of the environment problem intimidates the alive of the mankind and presence of an earth over the time. It becomes the essentiality not being selection in the personal living or the economical viewpoint now to prepare for the climatic modification. As to the company management, the green growth period which it excludes the environment management considering an environment, cannot carry on the company the continued management comes. That is, in the change center of the management paradigm, there is the environment management. Nearly, the greenhouse gas which the publication industry is the environmental toxic material like all industries is generated. The greenhouse gas is ejected in the process of running the manufacturing process and print shop of the various kinds material used as the raw material of the book. Particularly, the tree felling for getting the material of the paper is known to reach the direct influence on the global warming. This study does according to an object it considers and organizes the environment parameter based on this kind of fact as to the publication industry. And it is determined as the reference which is used as the basic materials preparing the case that carbon exhaust right transaction(CAP and TRADE) drawing are enforced in all industries and is sustainable the management of the publication industry and reduces the environmental risk among the company many risk management elements and plans and enforces the publication related policy that there is a value. In the printing publication industry, this study tried to inquire into elements discharging the environmental pollutant or the greenhouse gas. Additionally, in the printed publication production process, it tried to inquire into the effort for an environment-friendly and necessity at the printing paper and the printers ink, regarded as the element discharging the greenhouse gas all kinds of the printing materials, operation of the print shop and all kinds of the machines and recycle process, and etc. These considerations make these industrial field employees aware of the significance about a conservation and environmental protection. They try to give a help in the subsequent study producing quantitatively each environmental parameter emission of green house gas. This makes the calculation of the relative $CO_2$ output reproached ultimately possible. Meanwhile, in a sense, many research protects and improving an environment in connection with the contents of research at the printing publication industrial field is in progress. There will be the voluntary human face that it has to protect an environment but this can not do by the outside factor according to all kinds of environment related law and regulation. Anyway, because of acting on company management as the factor of oppression, the increase of this environment-related correspondence cost could know that the research that the environment loading relates with a procurement and development, environment management system introduction, quality control standard, including, normalizing including a material, and etc. through the part of the effort to reduce the cost low was actively in progress. As to the green growth era, as follows, this paper prescribed the subject and alternative of the print publication industry. It is surrounded by the firstly new digital environment and the generation of the subject. And secondly the printing industry is caused by the point of time when the green growth leaves by the topic which is largest in the global industry and it increases. The printing publication industry has to prepare the bridgehead for the environment-friendly green growth as the alternative for this resolution with first. The support blown in each industry becomes the obligation not being selection. Prestek in which the print publishing was exposed to spend many energies and which is known as the practice of the sustainable print publishing insisted that it mentioned importance of the green printing through the white pages in 2008 and a company had to be the green growth comprised through the environment-friendly activity. The core management for the sustainable printing publication industry presented from Presstack white pages is compacted to 4 words that it is a remove, reduce, recover, and recycle. Second, positively the digital printing(POD) system should be utilized. In the worldwide print out market, the digital printing area stops at the level of 10% or so but the change over and growth of the market of an analog-to-digital will increase rapidly in the future. As to the CEO Jeff Hayes of the Infoland, the offset print referred to that it of the traditional method got old and infirm with the minor phase of the new printing application like the customer to be wanted publication and the print of the digital method led the market. In conclusion, print publishers have to grasp well the market flow in the situation where a digitalization cannot be generalized and a support cannot avoid. And it keeps pace with the flow of the digital age and the recognition about the effort for the development and environment problem have to be raised. Particularly, the active green strategy is employed for the active green strategy.

• 설비공학논문집
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• 제29권6호
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• pp.327-340
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• 2017

This article reviews the papers published in the Korean Journal of Air-Conditioning and Refrigeration Engineering during 2016. It is intended to understand the status of current research in the areas of heating, cooling, ventilation, sanitation, and indoor environments of buildings and plant facilities. Conclusions are as follows. (1) The research works on the thermal and fluid engineering have been reviewed as groups of flow, heat and mass transfer, the reduction of pollutant exhaust gas, cooling and heating, the renewable energy system and the flow around buildings. CFD schemes were used more for all research areas. (2) Research works on heat transfer area have been reviewed in the categories of heat transfer characteristics, pool boiling and condensing heat transfer and industrial heat exchangers. Researches on heat transfer characteristics included the results of the long-term performance variation of the plate-type enthalpy exchange element made of paper, design optimization of an extruded-type cooling structure for reducing the weight of LED street lights, and hot plate welding of thermoplastic elastomer packing. In the area of pool boiling and condensing, the heat transfer characteristics of a finned-tube heat exchanger in a PCM (phase change material) thermal energy storage system, influence of flow boiling heat transfer on fouling phenomenon in nanofluids, and PCM at the simultaneous charging and discharging condition were studied. In the area of industrial heat exchangers, one-dimensional flow network model and porous-media model, and R245fa in a plate-shell heat exchanger were studied. (3) Various studies were published in the categories of refrigeration cycle, alternative refrigeration/energy system, system control. In the refrigeration cycle category, subjects include mobile cold storage heat exchanger, compressor reliability, indirect refrigeration system with $CO_2$ as secondary fluid, heat pump for fuel-cell vehicle, heat recovery from hybrid drier and heat exchangers with two-port and flat tubes. In the alternative refrigeration/energy system category, subjects include membrane module for dehumidification refrigeration, desiccant-assisted low-temperature drying, regenerative evaporative cooler and ejector-assisted multi-stage evaporation. In the system control category, subjects include multi-refrigeration system control, emergency cooling of data center and variable-speed compressor control. (4) In building mechanical system research fields, fifteenth studies were reported for achieving effective design of the mechanical systems, and also for maximizing the energy efficiency of buildings. The topics of the studies included energy performance, HVAC system, ventilation, renewable energies, etc. Proposed designs, performance tests using numerical methods and experiments provide useful information and key data which could be help for improving the energy efficiency of the buildings. (5) The field of architectural environment was mostly focused on indoor environment and building energy. The main researches of indoor environment were related to the analyses of indoor thermal environments controlled by portable cooler, the effects of outdoor wind pressure in airflow at high-rise buildings, window air tightness related to the filling piece shapes, stack effect in core type's office building and the development of a movable drawer-type light shelf with adjustable depth of the reflector. The subjects of building energy were worked on the energy consumption analysis in office building, the prediction of exit air temperature of horizontal geothermal heat exchanger, LS-SVM based modeling of hot water supply load for district heating system, the energy saving effect of ERV system using night purge control method and the effect of strengthened insulation level to the building heating and cooling load.

• Journal of Preventive Medicine and Public Health
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• 제2권1호
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• pp.5-22
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• 1969

The urban population of our country is rapidly increasing due to many factors of social structure, and sociologists are predicting that the increase rate of the urban population will be over 50% in 1980's. Above all, the population of the capital city of Seoul, is at present more than four millions. Such centring of people in cities, together with the improvement of the standards of living, caused rapid increase in the amount of fuel consumption, and this consumption of fuels became one of the primary sources of the air pollution in cities. Moreover, the heavy traffic, construction of many tall buildings, and the increasing number of new factories due to the industrial development-all these are contributing to make the matter of air pollution worse and worse in the Metropolitan, whose geographical location is quite unfavorable considered from the view point of air pollution. Most homes in Seoul use briquet as fuel, while oils are used in tall buildings. The CO, $SO_2$, and smoke that come from burning of these fuels are a great threat to the health of the urban population. With the purpose of examining the influence of air pollution upon the public health, written inquiries were made upon respiratory diseases, and the carboxyhemoglobin saturation in the blood was measured to determine whether the air pollution may affect the health of the urban population. Method of Health Examination (1) Investigation of Respiratory Diseases Patients' records were examined to figure out the monthly ambulance rate of respiratory patients to the total number of patients treated. On the other hand, by using the questionnaire form approved by the Medical Research Council's Committee on Research into Chronic Bronchitis, investigators interviewed the examinees and inquired into the respiratory symptoms. (2) Measuring of Carboxyhemoglobin Saturation From the ear lobe of the examinees, with the use of the melangeur for the white blood cell counting, blood was taken, and after diluting it ten times with 0.1% $Na{2}CO_{3}$, again diulting it 20 times with 0.5% $Na_{2}\;CO_{3}$, its absorbancy was measured. The following results are obtained from the investigation. (1) It was found out that 7.7% of the total patients under treatment were suffering from upper respiratory infection, acute or chronic bronchitis, bronchial asthma, pulmonary emphysema and bronchiectasis. Of them all, patients with upper respiratory infection numbered the greatest with 4.8% and patients with acute or chronic bronchitis the next with 2.1%, and their monthly ambulance rate was high from December to February during the winter, and from April to May and from September to October during the changeable seasons. (2) The daily ambulance rate of respiratory patients, it was revealed, had a close connection with the concentration of $SO_2$ and CO in the air. (3) It was found out that men were more subject to respiratory disease than women, and both men and women were more liable to the diseases with the advancing of age. (4) People living at Choong-ku with the heavy traffic and in the industrial zones of Yeungdungpo had high frequency of respiratory symptoms. (5) Considered from the view point of occupations, high frequency was found among those without job, with jobs unknown, merchants and intdustrial workers, whose social status was rather low and traffic policemen who were always exposed to the exhaust gas of cars. As for women, the frequency was detected in the order of those from high to low, housewives who were exposed to briquet gas, women with jobs unknown, women without jobs, whose social status was low. (6) Ex-smokers rather than smokers, of both sexes, had higher frequency. As for men, heavy smokers had high frequency, while in women light smokers had rather high frequency which was presumed to be due to their average old age. (7) Men's average of carboxyhemoglobin saturation was 9.48%, while women's was 11.3%, higher than men's. (p<0.05). Age meant no difference in the case of men, but as for women, the saturation was remarkably high between the ages from 20 to 60. (8) No regional difference was detected in the carboxyhemoglobin saturation. (9) The carboxyhemoglobin saturation was found, in the case of men, in the order of office workers, traffic policemen, students, the unemployed, merchants and industrial workers, drivers; and as for women, the order was housewives, office workers, merchants and industrial workers. (10) No significant correlation was found between the carboxyhemoglobin saturation and the concentration of CO detected in kitchens, or between the carhoxyhemoglobin saturation and the passing of time after exposure to briquet gas. No difference of carboxyhemoglobin saturation was detected between smokers and non-smokers, and the degrees of smoking; only, significant negative correlation was found between the passing of time after smoking and the carboxyhemoglobin saturation. It is ture that air pollution causes or aggravates the respiratory diseases, increases the carboxyhemoglobin saturation in the blood, but what seems to be more hazardous to the health is the air polluted by the briquet gas in the kitchens and on-dol rooms rather than the atmospheric air pollution.

• 대한한의학원전학회지
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• 제3권
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• pp.399-443
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• 1989

In this thesis, I intend to study the translational and clinical interpretation through the syndrom of "Pyong-Yeol-Byong", and reached the following conclusions. 1. Eum-Yang-Kyo (陰陽交)' 1) Meaning: "Eum" means "Essential and vital energy" "Yang" means "Evil factor affecting health" and "Kyo" means "cross-struggle." 2) Location of disease: Heat evil enter Hyeol-Bun (血分) 3) Pathogenesis: Heat evil invade Eum-Bun (陰分) and struggles with Health energy, therefore Eum-Chung (陰精) is exhausted and Heat-evil doesn't disapper, it damage Eum and exhaust fluid. Reach fever, rapid pulse raving and unable to take meal, not controled by sweating and sceach death. 4) Particularity of Syndrome: Heat enter Hyol-Bun, and Evil factor is enough and Health energy is insufficient, so that reveal the symptoms of high fever, delirium with coma, unable to take meals. 5) Therapy: It clears Gi-Bun heat evil (氣分熱邪) by Gypsum, Rhizoma Anemarrhenae, Flos Lonicerae, Fructus Forsythiae, Fructus Gardeniae, Radix Scutellanae Rhizoma Coptidis, and cools Blood by Cornu Rhinoceri Asiatici, Radix Rehmanniae, Cortex Moutan Radicis, Dae-Chung-Yob (大靑葉) Radix Arnebiae Seu Lithospermi. 2. Poong Gweol (風厥) 1) Meaning: Poong means wind-evil, Gweol means reversing up. 2) Location of disease: Disease complexes with TaeYang (太陽) in outer part, and with So-Eum (少陰) in inner part. 3) Pathogenesis: Tae-Yang-Gyeong (太陽經) accept wind-evil and So-Eum-Gyeong (少陽經) Kidney Energy reverse up so that fidgetiness not resolves by sweating. 4) Particularity of Syndrome: There are outer symptoms of fever, hydrosis with inner symptoms of fidgetinessis. 5) Therapy: Reduce Jok-Tae-Yang (足太陽) and Supply Jok-So-Eum (足少陰) by accupuncture, so cure Poong Gweol and make balance between Yeong (營) and Wi (衛). 3. Scrofula coused by wind-evil (勞風) 1) Meaning: It means accepting wind evil rest less. 2) Location of Disease: It locates lung 3) Pathogenesis: Because of accepting wind-evil restless, he take scrofula with damaging lung. 4) Particularity of disease: It is lung disease of aversion to wind and shiver, nape-stiffiness, dim eyesight, cough, disphea, vomitting sputum, if one camnot vomit sputum, he died by damage of lung. 5) Therapy: The period of therapy is different by age or strength of health energy, so I think must prevent Eum deficiency and clear fever no reduced in lung. 4. Shin-Poong (腎風) 1) Meaning: It means taking edema by accepting wind-evil, because the kidney controls water. 2) Location of Disease: It is that wind-evil envade kidney. 3) Pathogenesis : Water evil of kidney with wind-heat rises up to face, reach edema, puffines s of the lower eyelid, floating pulse, bombus, yellowish urine, hydrosis and hand-heating, drymouth and excessive thirsty, walkless by heaviness, menstrual disfunction, restless and unable to take meals, unable to lie flat, heavy cough if lie flat, and accepting wind-evil by deficiency of kidney function, so the function of dredging the water passage is not smooth, symptom of water and symptom of wind reveal together. 4) Therapy: Remove wind-heat, promote diuresis to eliminate tile wetness-evil, supplement the dificiency of kidney's Eum. Finally, we can know that later Fever Disease Medicime (溫病學) is affected to the theory of "Pyong Yeol Byong" in 33th Chapter of SoMoon (素問).

• 대한토목학회논문집
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• 제36권5호
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• pp.867-879
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• 2016

1970년대 이후 지속적인 차량의 증가로 배기가스에 의한 환경오염과 보행자 중심의 고유영역이 점차 축소되어 가고 있고, 중심상업지역, 학교 주변의 통학로, 차량이 통행하지 않은 산책로, 골목길 등 불특정 다수가 통행하는 장소에 대한 체계적 관리나 보행자 안전을 위한 최소한의 시설 구축이 미흡한 실정이다. 최근 "보행안전 및 편의 증진에 관한 법률"이 시행됨에 따라 행정자치부를 중심으로 차없는 거리에 관한 연구가 활발히 진행되고 있으나, 그에 따른 평가가중치의 산정기준은 미흡한 실정이며, 지자체를 통해 자체적으로 이루어지고 있는 차없는 거리 사업추진에 대한 평가는 이용객의 목적 및 규모, 체류시간 등을 통해 정성적인 평가만 이루어지고 있는 것이 현실이다. 본 연구에서는 차없는 거리 선정방법을 제시함으로써 앞으로 조성될 차없는 거리에 대한 선정방법 정립에 목적을 두고 설문조사를 통하여 연구를 수행하였다. 설문조사는 차없는 거리의 유형별 평가지표를 토대로 차없는 거리의 평가를 위한 가중치 제시를 목적으로 도시 통공학과 학사 이상, 교수, 공무원, 엔지니어링 회사 종사자 총 200명을 대상으로 차없는 거리의 평가가중치 제시 및 평가지표 선정을 위한 전문가 설문조사(F.G.I)를 실시하였다. 차없는 거리의 유형별 평가목표와 목표별 항목을 분류하여 가중치를 부여하고, 각 항목에 따른 세부지표별 가중치 제시를 통해 그 결과값을 점수화하였다. 본 연구에서 도출된 차없는 거리 유형별 평가가중치는 차없는 거리 조성을 위한 선정기준 수립방법의 일환으로, 향후 차없는 거리 평가방법 및 선정 기준 수립시 충분한 기여를 할 수 있을 것으로 판단된다.

• 생물환경조절학회지
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• 제4권1호
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• pp.59-67
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• 1995

자동단열온실시스템을 개발할 목적으로 실험용 온실의 천정과 벽체를 이중벽으로 제작하여 이중벽 내부에 단열입자를 자동으로 충전 회수할 수 있도록 시스템을 구성하여, 입자의 송풍성능, 투광성, 입자의 마모실험, 온실의 단열성능 및 차광효과를 분석한 결과를 요약하면 다음과 같다. 1. 약 2㎥의 입자를 충전 회수하는데 약 1시간 15분이 소요되었으나, 온실의 규모에 적합한 송풍기의 용량, 배기구의 면적, 충전관 및 회수관의 조절로 소요시간을 감소시킬 수 있을 것으로 판단되었다. 2. 단열입자의 회수 직후에 이중벽온실의 투광성을 객관성 있게 평가할 수 있는 10시에서 15시까지의 평균 투광율은 67%로 나타났다. 3. 입자의 충전 및 회수를 직송방식으로 하였을 때, 입자마모율이 연속 5개월 사용시 20%로 나타나, 입자의 충전 및 회수를 간접방식으로 수행하는 것이 타당한 것으로 분석되었다. 4. 겨울철 야간에 단열입자를 회수한 이중벽 온실의 내부온도는 외기온보다 평균 3.4$^{\circ}C$ 높았으나, 입자를 충전한 단열온실의 내부온도는 단열면적비가 73%일때 외기온보다 평균 6.6$^{\circ}C$ 높았고, 단열면적비가 100%일때 외기온보다 평균 13.5$^{\circ}C$ 높게 나타나 단열온실의 야간단열성능이 우수함을 알 수 있었다. 5. 일사가 양호하고 외기온이 높은 주간에 입자를 충전한 단열온실(단열면적비 100%)의 차광성능을 분석한 결과, 외기온의 평균이 36.9$^{\circ}C$일 때 온실내부온도의 평균은 3$0^{\circ}C$로 외기온보다 평균 7$^{\circ}C$ 낮게 나타나 차광효과가 크다는 사실을 알 수 있었다.

• Journal of Yeungnam Medical Science
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• 제15권2호
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• pp.224-236
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• 1998

자동차 배기가스내 연에 노출될 위험이 큰 직업의 하나인 지하주차장 근무자들의 혈중 연 및 ZPP 농도를 측정하고 근무자의 특성에 따른 연농도의 분포 양상 및 그 상관 요인을 규명하기 위하여 1997년 7월 1일부터 9월 30일까지 대구광역시 소재 모 지하주차장의 남자 차량관리 근무자 25명과 자동차 배기 가스에 직접적으로 노출되지 않는다고 생각되는 사무직 근로자 33명을 대상으로 면접설문조사를 하고, 정맥 혈을 채취하여 원자화 무염광로를 부착한 원자흡광광도계 및 hematofluorometer를 이용하여 혈중 연 및 ZPP 농도를 측정하였다. 지하주차장 근무자들의 평균 혈중 연 농도는 $23.10{\pm}20.77{\mu}g/dl$였고, 대조군은 $12.99{\pm}12.71{\mu}g/dl$로 유의한 차이가 있었으며(p<0.05), 평균 혈중 ZPP 농도는 지하주차장 근무자는 $40.72{\pm}9.46{\mu}g/dl$였고, 대조군은 $38.21{\pm}10.97{\mu}g/dl$로 유의한 차이가 없었다. 지하주차장 근무 정력에 따른 평균 혈중 연 농도는 5년 미만이 $20.60{\pm}18.28{\mu}g/dl$였고, 5년 이상이 $29.22{\pm}20.76{\mu}g/dl$로써 근무 경력이 많을수록 혈중 연 농도가 증가하는 경향이 있었으나 통계적으로 유의하지 않았다. 지하주차장 근무 경력에 따른 평균 혈중 ZPP 농도는 5년 미만이 $42.94{\pm}8.75{\mu}g/dl$였고, 5년 이상이 $36.00{\pm}9.71{\mu}g/dl$로써 통계적으로 유의한 차이는 없었으며, 근무 경력과 혈중 연 및 ZPP 농도사이에 상관 관계는 거의 없었다. 흡연 습관과 혈중 연 농도의 관계에서는 지하주차장 근무자는 흡연군에서 높은 혈중 연 농도를 나타내었으나 통계적으로는 유의하지는 않았고, 혈중 ZPP 농도도 통계적으로 유의한 차이는 없었다. 혈중 연 농도를 종속변수로하고, 연령, 흡연습관 및 직종을 독립변수로 한 중회귀분석에서 직종만이 혈중 연 농도에 유의한 영향을 미치는 변수였고, 혈중 ZPP 농도를 종속변수로하고, 연령, 흡연습관 및 직종을 독립변수로 한 중회귀분석에서 연령만이 혈중 ZPP 농도에 유의한 영향을 미치는 변수였다.

• 한국중재학회지:중재연구
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• 제19권2호
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• pp.95-126
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• 2009

One of the controversial issues in investor-state investment arbitration is the interpretation of "umbrella clause" that is found in most BIT and FTAs. This treaty clause requires on Contracting State of treaty to observe all investment obligations entered into with foreign investors from the other Contracting State. This clause did not receive in-depth attention until SGS v. Pakistan and SGS v. Philippines cases produced starkly different conclusions on the relations about treaty-based jurisdiction and contract-based jurisdiction. More recent decisions by other arbitral tribunals continue to show different approaches in their interpretation of umbrella clauses. Following the SGS v. Philippines decision, some recent decisions understand that all contracts are covered by umbrella clause, for example, in Siemens A.G. v. Argentina, LG&E Energy Corp. v. Argentina, Sempra Energy Int'l v. Argentina and Enron Corp. V. Argentina. However, other recent decisions have found a different approach that only certain kinds of public contracts are covered by umbrella clauses, for example, in El Paso Energy Int'l Co. v. Argentina, Pan American Energy LLC v. Argentina and CMS Gas Transmission Co. v. Argentina. With relation to the exhaustion of domestic remedies, most of tribunals have the position that the contractual remedy should not affect the jurisdiction of BIT tribunal. Even some tribunals considered that there is no need to exhaust contract remedies before bringing BIT arbitration, provoking suspicion of the validity of sanctity of contract in front of treaty obligation. The decision of the Annulment Committee In CMS case in 2007 was an extraordinarily surprising one and poured oil on the debate. The Committee composed of the three respected international lawyers, Gilbert Guillaume and Nabil Elaraby, both from the ICJ, and professor James Crawford, the Rapportuer of the International Law Commission on the Draft Articles on the Responsibility of States for Internationally Wrongful Acts, observed that the arbitral tribunal made critical errors of law, however, noting that it has limited power to review and overturn the award. The position of the Committee was a direct attack on ICSID system showing as an internal recognition of ICSID itself that the current system of investor-state arbitration is problematic. States are coming to limit the scope of umbrella clauses. For example, the 2004 U.S. Model BIT detailed definition of the type of contracts for which breach of contract claims may be submitted to arbitration, to increase certainty and predictability. Latin American countries, in particular, Argentina, are feeling collectively victims of these pro-investor interpretations of the ICSID tribunals. In fact, BIT between developed and developing countries are negotiated to protect foreign investment from developing countries. This general characteristic of BIT reflects naturally on the provisions making them extremely protective for foreign investors. Naturally, developing countries seek to interpret restrictively BIT provisions, whereas developed countries try to interpret more expansively. As most of cases arising out of alleged violation of BIT are administered in the ICSID, a forum under the auspices of the World Bank, these Latin American countries have been raising the legitimacy deficit of the ICSID. The Argentine cases have been provoking many legal issues of international law, predicting crisis almost coming in actual investor-state arbitration system. Some Latin American countries, such as Bolivia, Venezuela, Ecuador, Argentina, already showed their dissatisfaction with the ICSID system considering withdrawing from it to minimize the eventual investor-state dispute. Thus the disagreement over umbrella clauses in their interpretation is becoming interpreted as an historical reflection on the continued tension between developing and developed countries on foreign investment. There is an academic and political discussion on the possible return of the Calvo Doctrine in Latin America. The paper will comment on these problems related to the interpretation of umbrella clause. The paper analyses ICSID cases involving principally Latin American countries to identify the critical legal issues arising between developing and developed countries. And the paper discusses alternatives in improving actual investor-State investment arbitration; inter alia, the introduction of an appellate system and treaty interpretation rules.

• 한국가스학회지
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• 제23권6호
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• pp.90-96
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• 2019

셰일가스의 채굴량 확장과 러시아를 통한 PNG (Pipeline Natural Gas)의 도입은 천연가스가 유력한 대체 연료임을 시사해주고 있다. 따라서 향후 증대될 천연가스의 공급에 맞추어 해당 연료의 수요처 증대가 필수적인 상황이다. 이와 같은 상황에서 수송분야는 저탄소 기체 연료인 천연가스를 적용하기 적합한 분야이며, 이를 통해 이산화탄소와 입자상 물질 등의 유해 배기물질을 저감하는 데 큰 역할을 할 것으로 기대된다. 천연가스는 자발화 특성이 낮고, 내노킹(Anti-knocking)성이 우수하기 때문에 전기점화 방식에 적합하다. 최근 가솔린 엔진은 연비 개선을 위해 연소실에 직접 분사하는 방식을 주로 채택하고 있으나,연소실 내로 액상 직분사를 하는 반면 천연가스의 경우 액상분사 혹은 고압 분사가 어렵다. 따라서 포트에 분사하는 방식을 사용하므로 동등 흡기압력에서 연료의 분율이 흡입공기의 체적을 대체하여 가솔린 직분 방식에 비해 출력이 저하되는 현상을 피할 수 없게 된다. 이에 본 연구에서는 터보차저를 천연가스 포트 분사 엔진에 적용하여 흡기 압력 상향을 통한 출력 보상을 도모하고자 하였다.그 결과 천연가스 적용 시 흡기압력을 기존 가솔린 대비 5-27 % 상향 시 가솔린 직분사 엔진과 동등 출력을 확보함과 동시에 향상된 제동 열효율을 확인 할 수 있었다.