• KDI Journal of Economic Policy
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• v.32 no.2
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• pp.93-143
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• 2010

This paper estimates the impact of Japan's economic sanction on DPRK trade in the 2000s. It conceptualizes the effects of sanction on DPRK trade, econometrically tests whether such effects exist in case of Japan's sanction using currently available DPRK trade statistics, and measures the size of the effects by correcting and reconfiguring the deficiencies of the currently available DPRK trade statistics. The main findings of the paper are as follows. First, Japan's sanction can have two different effects on DPRK trade: 'Sanction Country Effect' and "Third Country Effect.' The former means that the sanction diminishes DPRK trade with Japan while the latter refers to the effects on DPRK trade with other countries as well. The third country effect can arise not simply because the DPRK changes its trade routes to circumvent the sanction, but because the sanction forces the DPRK to readjust its major trade items and patterns. Second, currently no official DPRK trade statistics are available. Thus, the so-called mirror data referring to DPRK trading partners' statistics should be employed for the analysis of the sanction effects. However, all currently available mirror data suffer from three fundamental problems: 1) they may omit the real trade partners of the DPRK; 2) they may confuse ROK trade with DPRK trade; 3) they cannot distinguish non-commercial trade from commercial trade, whereas only the latter concerns Japan's sanction. Considering those problems, we have to adopt the following method in order to reach a reasonable conclusion about the sanction effect. That is, we should repeat the same analysis using all different mirror data currently available, which include KOTRA, IMF and UN Commodity Trade Statistics, and then discuss only the common results from them. Third, currently available mirror data make the following points. 1) DPRK trade is well explained by the gravity model. 2) Japan's sanction has not only the sanction country effect but also the third country effect on DPRK trade. 3) The third country effect occurs differently on DPRK export and import. In case of export, the mirror statistics reveal positive (+) third country effects on all of the major trade partners of the DPRK, including South Korea, China and Thailand. However, on DPRK import, such third country effects are not statistically significant even for South Korea and China. 4) This suggests that Japan's sanction has greater effects on DPRK import rather than its export. Fourth, as far as DPRK export is concerned, it is possible to resolve the abovementioned fundamental problems of mirror data and thus reconstruct more accurate statistics on DPRK trade. Those reconstructed statistics lead us to following conclusions. 1) Japan's economic sanction diminished DPRK's export to Japan from 2004 to 2006 by 103 million dollars on annual average (Sanction Country Effect). It comprises around 60 percent of DPRK's export to Japan in 2003. 2) However, for the same period, the DPRK diverted its exports to other countries to cope up with Japan's sanction, and as a result its export to other countries increased by 85 million dollars on annual average (Third Country Effect). 3) This means that more than 80 per cent of the sanction country effect was made up for by the third country effect. And the actual size of impact that Japan's sanction made on DPRK export in total was merely 30 million dollars on annual average. 4) The third country effect occurred mostly in inter-Korean trade. In fact, Japan's sanction increased DPRK export to the ROK by 72 million dollars on annual average. In contrast, there was no statistically significant increase in DPRK export to China caused by Japan's sanction. 5) It means that the DPRK confronted Japan's sanction and mitigated its impact primarily by using inter-Korean trade and thus the ROK. Fifth, two things should be noted concerning the fourth results above. 1) The results capture the third country effect caused only by trade transfer. Facing Japan's sanction, the DPRK could transfer its existing trade with Japan to other countries. Also it could change its main export items and increase the export of those new items to other countries as mentioned in the first result. However, the fourth results above reflect only the former, not the latter. 2) Although Japan's sanction did not make a huge impact on DPRK export, it might not be necessarily true for DPRK import. Indeed the currently available mirror statistics suggest that Japan's sanction has greater effects on DPRK import. Hence it would not be wise to argue that Japan's sanction did not have much impact on DPRK trade in general, simply using the fourth result above.

• Journal of Distribution Science
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• v.15 no.3
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• pp.49-60
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• 2017

Purpose - The aims of this study are follows. We investigated to find out how country image and brand image affect the consumer perceived value, consumer attitude, and purchase intention of foreign infant foods in China. Especially, we focused on investigate for the moderating role of consumer knowledge between national image, brand image and consumer perceived value of foreign infant foods in China. Research design, data, and methodology - This study analyzed the effect of national image and brand image on purchase intention through consumer perceived value and consumer attitude. This study collected data for empirical analysis of Chinese consumers who have been purchase experience infant foods in China. 256 copies of questionnaire data were used for substantial analysis. Before testing the hypothesis, factor analysis was conducted to test the construct validity of measurement items. Hypotheses about effects between variables were verified using structural equation modeling analysis and hierarchical regression analysis. Results - First, the country image had a positive effect on consumer perceived value of foreign infant foods. Second, the brand image had a positive effect on consumer perceived value of foreign infant foods. Third, the consumer perceived value had a positive effect on consumer attitude. Fourth, the consumer attitude had a positive effect on purchase intention. Fifth, the consumer knowledge was moderating roles between brand image and consumer perceived value of foreign infant foods. However, the consumer knowledge did not effect of moderating between country image and perceived value of consumers. Conclusions - First, the impact of country image and brand image on consumer perceived value of foreign infant foods in China can be seen as a universal psychology of consumers who trust pure foreign products such as high quality, technology, etc. Second, consumer perceived value of foreign infant foods has a positive effect on consumer attitude, and this attitude is leading to purchase intention. Third, the consumer knowledge between brand image and perceived value acts as a moderating variable. It means that the consumer's knowledge can shape the perception of the brand image more strongly.

• Human Ecology Research
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• v.55 no.2
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• pp.153-166
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• 2017

This study examined the effects of the cognitive and affective country image of Korea on product evaluation and purchase intention for Korean products. The research model was developed from relevant literature based on the halo effect model and data was collected using a self-administered online survey of 772 Southeast Asian consumers from Vietnam, Indonesia, and Malaysia. The major findings are as follows. First, analysis of variance revealed that Vietnam consumers have a significantly positive perception compared to Indonesia and Malaysia, regarding the affective country image and purchase intention towards Korean products. Second, results from structural equation model showed that the affective country image has significantly positive effects on product evaluation and purchase intention, which means the affective country image is directly and indirectly connected to purchase intention towards Korean products. However, cognitive country image only has an indirect effect on purchase intention. Third, the results of comparing path coefficient among three countries showed that the direct effect is more effective for consumers in Indonesia and Malaysia, whereas indirect effect has a stronger effect on consumers in Vietnam. Academically, this study contributes to an expansion of understanding the effects of country image by empirically proving the different roles of cognitive and affective dimensions for country image. This study provides practical implications for developing marketing communication strategies for businesses that hope to penetrate Southeast Asian countries.

• THE INTERNATIONAL COMMERCE & LAW REVIEW
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• v.56
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• pp.3-27
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• 2012

The purpose of this thesis is to develop a relational model which can explain consumer selection for exporting goods and analyze the effect of corporate image on the relations between country image and consumer selection under global trade environment. The specific objectives are as follows: 1) to suggest a concept of consumer selection and measurement criteria, 2) to analyze correlations among country image, corporate image and consumer selection and 3) to find out the effect of corporate image on the relations between country image and consumer selection. The SPSS program for window and LISREL program were used to analyze the data for this study. The statistical method used in this study was the covariance structure analysis estimating parameters by maximum likelihood method. Path coefficients were tested for t-tests with a statistical significance level of .05. The conclusions of this study are as follows. First, significant correlations were observed among all sub-variables proposed in this study. In addition, significant correlations were detected among country image, consumer selection and corporate image. Second, a hypothetical model proposed in this study was mostly appropriate. Country image had a positive direct effect on consumer selection and corporate image with statistical significance. In addition, it has an indirect impact on consumer selection with statistical significance with corporate image as an intervening variable. Third, corporate image had a significant moderation effect in country image-consumer selection relations. As corporate image levels increased, the effect of country image on consumer selection increased as well. In other words, it has been confirmed that if corporate image levels are high, country image could end up with consumer selection.

• Journal of Fashion Business
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• v.21 no.1
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• pp.1-11
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• 2017

This study investigated the effect of brand history, congruity between country of origin and conspicuous consumption of fashion brand, based on the evaluation of customers. The factorial design was constructed as a 3-way mixed design: 2(brand history: presented vs not presented) ${\times}$ 2(congruity between Country of Brand(COB) and Country of Manufacture (COM): congruent vs incongruent) ${\times}$ 2(conspicuous consumption: high vs low). A total of 302 men and women aged above 30 and living in Seoul or within the capital area, were enrolled as subjects. Of these, 26 insincere responses were excluded and a final total of 276 responses were used in the analysis. The statistical analysis included reliability analysis, three-way ANOVA, and simple interaction effect analysis with SPSS 18.0 statistics. Our results indicate that brand history, congruity between COB and COM, and conspicuous consumption had significant effect on the fashion brand preference of consumers. Furthermore, presenting the brand history resulted in higher brand preference. Second, the brand history and conspicuous consumption had a significant interaction effect on brand preference. Consumers with higher conspicuous consumption showed significantly higher brand preference than those with lower conspicuous consumption. Third, congruity between COB and COM and conspicuous consumption had a significant interaction effect on brand preference. However, when COB and COM were dissimilar no significant effect of conspicuous consumption on brand preference was observed.

• The Journal of Asian Finance, Economics and Business
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• v.9 no.4
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• pp.287-298
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• 2022

Indonesia is an agrarian country with the significant development of Shariah banking. This study aimed to estimate the effect of Third Party Funds (TPF), Non-Performing Financing (NPF), Exchange Rates (ER), and Bank Indonesia Shariah Certificates (SBIS) on the Sharia Agriculture Sector Financing in Indonesia during 2014-2020. This study used the Ordinary Least Square (OLS) technique to analyze the data. The coefficient of determination test showed that 99.19% of Sharia financing in the agricultural sector was influenced by TPF, NPF, Exchange Rate, and SBIS variables. The estimation results showed that the variables of TPF and ER significantly affected Sharia Financing for Agricultural Sector (PP). Meanwhile, the NPF and SBIS variables had no significant effect on PP. This research showed the resilience and accuracy of Islamic banking in selecting financing and can support the development of other Islamic financial instruments such as SBIS. Simultaneous test results demonstrated the existence of the estimating model. Because of the character of the Indonesian nation as an agricultural country, this study advised Sharia banking to prioritize the usage of third-party funds from the public for the agricultural industry. Sharia banking also needed to produce Islamic finance products that fit the agriculture business sector's needs.

• International Journal of Advanced Culture Technology
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• v.10 no.1
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• pp.116-121
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• 2022

In the environment in which business is conducted, all companies will most likely have competitors, but of equal importance to the relationship between a company and its competitors is the existence of other entities that can influence the market at any time. This entity could be an emerging company that develops a new methodology rendering current approaches obsolete, or it could be a diplomatic circumstance with another country. It is critical to develop corporate strategies and economic policies to consider the possibility that such third party effects may continue to occur in the future. It is essential to move away from focusing only on bilateral relationships, and to thoroughly examine the third one and prepare countermeasures. This contribution is expected to be expanded into "The Third Party Economics" that explores considerations that have remained outside of contemporary discussions. The author proposes that all economic agents should deeply recognize not only competitors but also the existence of a third party as another axis.

• Journal of Korean Society of Rural Planning
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• v.28 no.3
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• pp.61-72
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• 2022

This study was conducted to understand how the conflict experiences of those who returned to farming and country affected the relation with residents, satisfaction of movement, and participation rate in the community with 961 subjects that returned to farming and country in Uiryeong-gun. The study results are as follows. First, 15.6% of them experienced the conflicts with original residents. Second, there were differences in experiencing conflicts by the type of movement. Those who returned to farming and country from urban areas showed more experiences of conflicts with original residents than those from Uiryeong or rural areas. Therefore, it is necessary to educate those from urban areas on the detailed conflict cases and countermeasures against the conflicts. Third, those who returned to farming and country with conflict experiences showed more negative perception on the relation with residents, and lower satisfaction level on their returning. Fourth, negative correlation was found between conflict experiences and relation with residents, demonstrating lower satisfaction on the returning and participation in the community as they perceived the relation with residents more negatively. These study results can be utilized as the basic data to establish the future policies on the supports for settlement of returning to farming and country.

• Journal of Distribution Science
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• v.11 no.2
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• pp.23-33
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• 2013

Purpose - Numerous studies have tried to assess the role of a warranty as an explanatory instrument for product quality. While one study argued that manufacturers signal their superior quality to consumers by extending the duration of a warranty, quality is not necessarily related to warranty and a warranty for a short duration is a sign of high product quality. However, there are limitations to measuring product quality in terms of a single variable such as a warranty. Some other studies have evaluated the influence of brand power or value and price on the supposed quality of a product while the influence of warranty was found to be insignificant. Research design, data, methodology - The study analyzes the influence of brand power and the country of origin effect on consumers' perception of product quality in line with warranty and establishes a priority strategy. Especially, consumer experience has a significant influence on state of the art technology products like applied home electronics as these goods are generally quite expensive and consumers expend significant energy in purchasing them, so the associated warranty and brand can have a critical role in the decision making process. The price of the product was excluded in this discussion as it continually varies with the market share of the product. Results - The results of the analysis are as follows: First, each of the factors such as the standard of the warranty, brand power, and country of origin effect influences the degree of satisfaction of an individual. Second, the factors brand power and quality of the warranty interact both complementarily and synergistically at a time, depending on the brand power. As brand power is more significant, the degree of satisfaction is greater in case of products with low quality warranty compared to those with high quality warranty. Third, the brand power and country of origin effect present a complementary interaction. Fourth, the country of origin effect and quality of a warranty interact synergistically. Conclusions - Thus, the higher the quality of warranty, greater is the increment in the degree of satisfaction. The comprehensive study on the effect of the country of origin on the purchase decision process and the degree of satisfaction compared to the other elements shows that in case of Japanese and Korean markets the brand power of a company is desirable in sustaining the quality of warranty to the industrial average. Also, there is no significant improvement in the perceived quality of the product when the quality of the warranty is lowered. Therefore, the warranty effect diminishes when the value of the brand is known, while it perishes when both the brand power and the country of origin effect are strong enough.

• Journal of Acupuncture Research
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• v.18 no.1
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• pp.146-156
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• 2001

Objectrve : To research the trends of the study related to aging process, and to establish the direction of the study on aging process. Method : We reviewed the journal and essay about the aging process which are published as well in Korea as in foreign country. Results : 1. The study on the Oriental Medicine field can be classfied with the fourth. first, the study of single herb medication's effect on the aging process. second, the study of multiple herb medication's effect on the aging process. third, the study of herb-acupuncture solution's effect on the aging process. fourth, journal review. We find the fact that the study on the Oriental Medicine is concerned with pathology of deficiency syndrome of the kidneys, retention of phlegm and fluid, blood stasis. 2. On the Western Medicine field, mechanism and pathology of aging pracess primarily has been studied. The mechanism of aging process is classified with 'Wear and tear theory' and 'Genome-based theory'. Among the mechanism of aging process, 'Free radical theory' is the most important. Additionally 'Senescence-Accelerated Mouse' has been studied. 3. We review the journal published in foreign country and its subject was the following: first, moxibustion combined with acu-area skin allograft therapy for the aging was effective, second, the traditional chinese medicine bu-zhong-yi-qi-tang in mice have anti-aging effect. third, the overview Preventive geriatrics of Traditional chinese medicine. 4. We researched anti-aging effect study in the journal of the Korean Acupuncture and Moxibustion, and we found a few journal of Herb-acupuncture solution's anti-aging effect. Hereafter, it is necessory that we will study about relationship between acupuncture-moxibustion therpy and anti-aging effect using Senescence-Accelerated Mouse.