• Korean Journal of Medicinal Crop Science
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• v.26 no.5
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• pp.370-381
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• 2018

Background: To enhance the taste and physiological characteristics of Lycii fructus (Gugija) extracts, we investigated the changes in the physiological characteristics of Gugija extracts caused by adding white ginseng (WG) and red ginseng (RG) Methods and Results: Gugija extracts, including 10G10, 10GW-G8 : 2, -G6 : 4, -G4 : 6, -G2 : 8, and -G0 (mixtures made by replacing 0, 20, 40, 60, 80, and 100% of Gugija with WG), as well as 10G10, 10GR-G8 : 2, -G6 : 4, -G4 : 6, -G2 : 8, and -G0 (mixture made by replacing 0, 20, 40, 60, 80, and 100% of Gugija with RG) were extracted with water at 10 times the respective mixture's volume. The antioxidant activities of Gugija extracts were investigated by assessing their 1,1-diphenyl-2-picrydrazyl (DPPH) and 2,2'-azinobis(3ethylbenzothiazoline-6-sulfonic acid) (ABTS) radical scavenging activity, ferric reducing antioxidant potential (FRAP) activity, nitrite scavenging activity, and angiotensin converting enzyme (ACE) inhibitory activity. As the amount of WG added increased, the DPPH, and, ABTS radical scavenging activity, and FRAP activity of the Gugija extract decreased. The half maximal inhibitory concentration ($IC_{50}$) value of 10G10, 10GW-G6 : 4, 10GR-G6 : 4, and 10GR-G0 for DPPH radical scavenging activity were $25.50{\pm}1.04$, $52.06{\pm}1.46$, $16.87{\pm}1.24$, and $9.50{\pm}0.16{\mu}{\ell}/m{\ell}$, respectively. On the other hand, the physiological activity of Gugija extract increased with the addition of increasing amounts of RG. However, ACE inhibitory activity was the highest ($50.25{\pm}2.58%$) in the Gugija 10-fold extract without any added RG. Conclusions: From the above results, we suggest that adding RG to Gugija extracts increase their antioxidant, FRAP, and nitrite scavenging activities.

• Journal of Ginseng Research
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• v.41 no.1
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• pp.60-68
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• 2017

Background: Various Panax ginseng cultivars exhibit a range of diversity for morphological and physiological traits. However, there are few studies on diversity of metabolic profiles and genetic background to understand the complex metabolic pathway in ginseng. Methods: To understand the complex metabolic pathway and related genes in ginseng, we tried to conduct integrated analysis of primary metabolite profiles and related gene expression using five ginseng cultivars showing different morphology. We investigated primary metabolite profiles via gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS) and analyzed transcriptomes by Illumina sequencing using adventitious roots grown under the same conditions to elucidate the differences in metabolism underlying such genetic diversity. Results: GC-MS analysis revealed that primary metabolite profiling allowed us to classify the five cultivars into three independent groups and the grouping was also explained by eight major primary metabolites as biomarkers. We selected three cultivars (Chunpoong, Cheongsun, and Sunhyang) to represent each group and analyzed their transcriptomes. We inspected 100 unigenes involved in seven primary metabolite biosynthesis pathways and found that 21 unigenes encoding 15 enzymes were differentially expressed among the three cultivars. Integrated analysis of transcriptomes and metabolomes revealed that the ginseng cultivars differ in primary metabolites as well as in the putative genes involved in the complex process of primary metabolic pathways. Conclusion: Our data derived from this integrated analysis provide insights into the underlying complexity of genes and metabolites that co-regulate flux through these pathways in ginseng.

• KOREAN JOURNAL OF CROP SCIENCE
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• v.54 no.3
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• pp.287-293
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• 2009

In this study, red ginseng extract solutions were analyzed to set up the functional saponin content and quality optimization condition. The highest saponin content among the total red ginseng extracts was 64.6 mg / 100 ml which was extracted at $75^{\circ}C$ for 18 hours. In addition, the saponin content decreased according to the increased extraction temperature and time. The highest total content of $Rb_2$ and Re was 11.8 mg / 100 ml at $75^{\circ}C$ for 12 hours which decreased according to the increased extraction temperature and time. The prosapogenin content of red ginseng extract was increased at $75^{\circ}C$ and $85^{\circ}C$ while the content decreased at $95^{\circ}C$, in which the highest prosapogenin content was 34.9 mg / 100 ml at $85^{\circ}C$ for 24 hours. The total sugar content and cloudness were increased according to the increased extraction time at $95^{\circ}C$, but pH and hue value were decreased according to the increased extracted time. The highest sweetness content was 4.0% which was found at $95^{\circ}C$ for 24 hours extract. Therefore, the most appropriate red ginseng extracting method was lower the temperature for saponin content at first time in combination with raise the temperature for taste at second time.

• Korean Journal of Medicinal Crop Science
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• v.17 no.5
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• pp.352-356
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• 2009

In this study, raw ginseng water extract solutions were analyzed to set up the functional saponin content and quality optimization condition. The highest saponin content among the total raw ginseng water extracts was $74.6\;mg/100\;m{\ell}$ which was extracted at $75^{\circ}C$ for 24 hours. In addition, the saponin content decreased according to the increased extraction temperature and time. The highest total content of $Rb_2$ and Re was $19.9\;mg/100\;m{\ell}$ at $75^{\circ}C$ for 12 hours which decreased according to the increased extracted temperature and time. The highest prosapogenin ($Rg_2\;+\;Rg_3\;+\;Rh_1$) content among the total raw ginseng water extracts was $28.6\;mg/100\;m{\ell}$ which was extracted at $85^{\circ}C$ for 36 hours. The reducing sugar content, sweetness and turbidity were increased according to the increased extraction temperature and time. But pH were decreased according to the increased extracted time.

• Journal of Ginseng Research
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• v.32 no.1
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• pp.26-32
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• 2008

A total of 29 Botrytis were isolated from ginseng gray mold at 8 locations in Korea from June to July, 2004 and 2005. The causative agent of them was identified as Botrytis cinerea based on morphological characteristics of conidia and RPB2 gene sequence analysis. In inoculation experiments with sclerotia, one isolate was pathogenic to ginseng plant whereas two isolates were non-pathogenic. Scanning electron microscopy revealed that the sclerotia of pathogenic isolate has rough surface and that of non-pathogenic isolate very smooth surface. Optimum temperature and culture conditions for sclerotia production were $5{\sim}20^{\circ}C$ and darkness, respectively. The number of sclerotia was increased tenfold on media added with 0.5% old stem fragment of ginseng.

• Journal of the Korean Applied Science and Technology
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• v.35 no.3
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• pp.683-694
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• 2018

The ginseng extract was dried and added forming agents using lactose, glucose and arabic gum to enhance convenience and consumer acceptability. As the addition of lactose increased, the absorption of ginseng granule decreased and the solubility tended to increase as the amount of glucose added decreased. The amount of solubilized saponin from the ginseng granules was affected more by the addition amount of ginseng concentrate than by the kind and amount of the forming agents added. Absorption and solubility tended to increase with increasing amount of arabic gum, and there was no significant difference in color change(p<0.05). The optimal mixing ratio of ginseng granules according to addition of forming agents was 10% of ginseng concentrate, 80% of lactose, 5% of glucose and 5% of arabic gum.

• Journal of Ginseng Research
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• v.37 no.1
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• pp.108-116
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• 2013

For the improvement of ginsenoside bioavailability, the ginsenosides of fermented red ginseng by Phellinus linteus (FRG) were examined with respect to bioavailability and physiological activity. The polyphenol content of FRG ($19.14{\pm}0.50$ mg/g) was significantly higher (p<0.05) compared with that of non-fermented red ginseng (NFRG, $11.31{\pm}1.15$ mg/g). The antioxidant activities in FRG, such as 2,2'-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl, 2,2-azino-bis-3-ethylbenzothiazoline-6-sulphonic acid, and ferric reducing antioxidant power, were significantly higher (p<0.05) than those in NFRG. The HPLC analysis results showed that the FRG had a high level of ginsenoside metabolites. The total ginsenoside contents in NFRG and FRG were $41.65{\pm}1.53$ mg/g and $50.12{\pm}1.43$ mg/g, respectively. However, FRG had a significantly higher content ($33.90{\pm}0.97$ mg/g) of ginsenoside metabolites (Rg3, Rg5, Rk1, compound K, Rh1, F2, and Rg2) compared with NFRG ($14.75{\pm}0.46$ mg/g). The skin permeability of FRG was higher than that of NFRG using Franz diffusion cell models. In particular, after 3 h, the skin permeability of FRG was significantly higher (p<0.05) than that of NFRG. Using a rat everted intestinal sac model, FRG showed a high transport level compared with NFRG after 1 h. FRG had dramatically improved bioavailability compared with NFRG as indicated by skin permeation and intestinal permeability. The significantly greater bioavailability of FRG may have been due to the transformation of its ginsenosides by fermentation to more easily absorbable forms (ginsenoside metabolites).

• Korean Journal of Medicinal Crop Science
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• v.20 no.3
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• pp.184-189
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• 2012

This study was carried out to have the basic and applied informations relating to increase the productivity and quality of ginseng. 2 years-old ginseng was cultivated under hydroponic culture with the controlled environment conditions in a greenhouse. Major growth characters and yields were investigated with two different temperatures and several growth stages. The plant height and stem diameter were higher at low temperature than those at high temperature. They were not clearly different with six different growth stages. The root length was not clearly different between two temperatures; however it was continuously grown from June until August. The root diameter was higher at low temperature than that at high temperature. It was rapidly increased from June until August. The length, width, and area of leaf were higher at low temperature than those at high temperature. The fresh and dry weights of different plant tissues were also heavier at low temperature than those at high temperature. The moisture content of ginseng root was continuously decreased from June until August. The yield of ginseng was higher at low temperature compared to that at high temperature. The cultivating conditions in hydroponic culture of ginseng, especially temperature, would be an important factor to have better growth and production.

• Journal of Ginseng Research
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• v.36 no.3
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• pp.277-290
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• 2012

The metabolic profiles of Panax quinquefolius and its associated therapeutic values are critically affected by the repetitious steaming times. The times-dependent steaming effect of P. quinquefolius is not well-characterized and there is also no official guideline on its times of steaming. In this paper, a UPLC-Q-TOF-MS/MS method was developed for the qualitative profiling of multi-parametric metabolic changes of raw P. quinquefolius during the repetitious steaming process. Our method was successful in discriminating the differentially multi-steamed herbs. Meantime, the repetitious steaming-inducing chemical transformations in the preparation of black American ginseng (American ginseng that was subjected to 9 cycles of steaming treatment) were evaluated by this UPLC-Q-TOF-MS/MS based chemical profiling method. Under the optimized UPLC-Q-TOF-MS/MS conditions, 29 major ginsenosides were unambiguously identified and/or tentatively assigned in both raw and multi-steamed P. quinquefolius within 19 min, among them 18 ginsenosides were detected to be newly generated during the preparatory process of black American ginseng. The mechanisms involved were further deduced to be hydrolysis, dehydration, decarboxylation and addition reactions of the original ginsenosides in raw P. quinquefolius through analyzing mimic 9 cycles of steaming extracts of 14 pure reference ginsenosides. Our novel steaming times-dependent metabolic profiling approach represents the paradigm shift in the global quality control of multi-steamed P. quinquefolius products.

• BMB Reports
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• v.48 no.7
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• pp.419-425
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• 2015

Ginseng has been widely used for therapeutic and preventive purposes for thousands of years. However, orally administered ginseng has very low bioavailability and absorption in the intestine. Therefore, fermented ginseng was developed to enhance the beneficial effects of ginseng in the intestine. In this study, we investigated the molecular mechanisms underlying the anti-inflammatory activity of fermented wild ginseng (FWG). We found that FWG significantly alleviated the severity of colitis in a dextran sodium sulfate (DSS)-induced colitis mouse model, and decreased expression level of pro-inflammatory cytokines in colonic tissue. Moreover, we observed that FWG suppressed the infiltration of macrophages in DSS-induced colitis. FWG also attenuated the transcriptional activity of nuclear factor-κB (NF-κB) by reducing the translocation of NF-κB into the nucleus. Our data indicate that FWG contains anti-inflammatory activity via NF-κB inactivation and could be useful for treating colitis. [BMB Reports 2015; 48(7): 419-425]