• MALSORI
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• no.29_30
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• pp.61-94
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• 1995

The aim of this paper is to describe the linguistic differences of two Koreas with a special emphasis on the phonetic aspect of Seoul and Pyongyang speech. The sources of the North Korean speech material used in the study are 1) the Pyongyang radio and TV broadcasts, 2) interviews of north Korean defectors and 3) speech material of north Korean scholars collected by the writer in london, Warsaw, France and China between 1989 and 1994. The most noticeable phonetic differences of Seoul and Pyongyang speech are abstracted as follows: 1) The vowels /이/, /에/ and /애/ are higher and fronter in Pyongyang speech than in Seoul speech. 2) The vowels /우/ and /으/ of Pyongyang speech are somewhat fronter than the corresponding vowels of Seoul speech. 3) The Pyongyang vowels /으/ and if are produced with rounded lips compared to the corresponding Seoul vowels. 4) The Pyongyang vowel /h) is much lower in tongue position and at the same time somewhat fronter than the corresponding Seoul vowel. 5) The consonants /r ,i ,n / are pronounced in Pyongyang as alveolar affricates or something close to them whereas they are pronounced in Seoul as post-alveolar affricates. 6) Unlike in Seoul speech there is a very strong tendency in Pyongyang speech to reduce aspiration feature in consonant seouences such as /ㅂ+ㅎ/, /ㄷ+ㅎ/, /ㄱ+ㅎ/. 7) /ㄴ/ and /ㄹ/(flap) freely occur word-initially in Pyongyang speech whereas they are restricted in Seoul speech. 8) Unlike in Seoul speech the phonemic contrast of long and short vowels are generally not functional in Pyongyang speech. Thus the vowels pronounced long in Seoul speech are usually pronounced short in Pyongyang speech.

• Journal of the Architectural Institute of Korea Planning & Design
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• v.35 no.4
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• pp.115-126
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• 2019

Construction of the Pyongyang Railroad Station began in 1907 as an important foothold for the Japanese colonization of the Korean Peninsula and the further invasion of Manchuria. As Pyongyang gradually grew in size and political significance, the Pyongyang Station came to have two responsibilities: Fulfill its functional role and serve as a monument to the growing dignity of the city. This study argues that the Pyongyang Station, newly rebuilt in 1958, was the first building to solve the demands for both functional expansion and the pursuit of monumentality. Stylistically, the original single-story wooden building became a three-story classical masonry building. The stylistic change symbolizes the political shift by which the building was reconstructed. The simple wooden building built by the Japanese, representing Pyongyang's status as a colonial provincial town, was transformed into an imposing gateway for the capital city of a newly born socialist state. Socialist Realism, correctly described by its slogan "socialist in content and national in form," harmoniously blended classical architecture, socialist symbols, and Korean local motifs. This study is significant in that it illustrates the historical changes and continuity of the Pyongyang Station from 1907, when it was first built, through the "liberated space" to the postwar reconstruction period of the 1950s.

• Journal of architectural history
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• v.30 no.6
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• pp.45-58
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• 2021

This study aims to examine the changes in Pyongyang-bu during the late Joseon period and Pyeong-an Gamyeong through gazetteer, pictiroal maps and various literature. The results are as follows. To begin with, unlike other gamyeong, Pyongyang-bu had an exclusive government office facility from the beginning and had a different status because of the route for envoys from Ming. Therefore historical sites related to Gija were important. Second, the importance of Pyongyang city-wall increased even more through the Japanese Hideyoshi invasions in 1592 and the Manchu Invasion in 1636. However, since the post-war restoration was insufficient they focused on defense reducing the size of Pyongyang city wall. Third, as society stabilized, Pyongyangbu's finances were greatly secured. King Sukjong systematically reorganized Pyongyang city wall and facility of Pyongy-an gamyeong. The nothern wall in located high place, Gamyeong and storage in middle height and military force and guesthouse in the center of Pyongyang-bu. I-a and warehouse facilities in the far south were placed around the Daedonggwan. The urban structure that runs from Daedonggwan to Daedongmun was the same as other city. Another pertinent point is Pyeong-an gamyeong had more military facilities and rear garden and pavilion than before. In clunclusion, Pyeong-an gamyeong did not pass through three gates, but only through two gates. And it was characterized by more various space and having more pavilions than other gamyeong.

• Journal of the Korean Society of Costume
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• v.55 no.3 s.93
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• pp.94-107
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• 2005

Kokuryo mural tombs are located in Jipan and Pyongyang, where were capital Cities of Kokuryo. Although there are many studies performed about costumes in Kokuryo mural tombs so far, the studies comparing regional differences are rare. In this study, we tried to compare about the costumes in Kokuryo mural tombs between Jipan, where was the capital city in early period (BC37-AD426) and Pyongyang, where was the capital city for 241 years after the King Jang Su moved.(AD427-AD668) The results of this study are as following. There are differences between Jipan and Pyongyang in the shape of Chima(skirt) and the direction of Yeomim (adjusting the necklines). While there was only one type, long and narrow pleated skirt in Jipan area, another type of Chima was existed in Pyongyang area including the one in Jipan. Also, the direction of Yeomim was different. Left was popular in Jipan while it was right in Pyongyang. Moreover there are no man's Po(coat) with straight collar which was considered as a basic shape in Kokuryo mural tombs costumes so far. Also we found that Baji(pants) was an ordinary woman's costume, not only for underwear.

• Journal of the Architectural Institute of Korea Planning & Design
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• v.34 no.10
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• pp.119-130
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• 2018

In the late 1950s, departing from their unquestioning following of Soviet architecture, North Koreans attempted to discover the specificities of traditional Korean architecture and apply them to their contemporary monuments. This paper examines the ways in which North Korean architects developed their unique version of Socialist realism in the making of Pyongyang Grand Theater. The traditional elements in harmony with North Korea's political ideology-an early form of Juche ideology-and modern building technologies were to be viewed as contemporary elements, and not as a simple revival of the past. This study applies Socialist realism's compositional principle "national in form and socialist in content" to Pyongyang Grand Theater and examines specifically what "socialist content" and "national form" were and how the two were combined in the construction of Pyongyang Grand Theater. By situating the building in the context of localization of Socialist realism which is universal art principle of the communist world, this study contributes to the deeper and wider understanding of North Korea's Modern Joseon Architecture.

• Journal of architectural history
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• v.27 no.2
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• pp.125-138
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• 2018

During the 1950s, the North Koreans rebuilt their capital-Pyongyang-as a modern city under the principle of Soviet urban design. One North Korean architect, Kim Jung-hee, has been widely credited since the late 1980s as the master architect of the General Plan of the city's reconstruction. While Kim Jung-hee played a crucial role in its reconstruction, his heroic image as the founding architect of Pyongyang is considerably attributed to North Korea's mythical narratives rather than his historical activities. This paper argues that Pyongyang's postwar urban design was not a work made by a single actor, Kim Jung-hee; rather, it was a long-term collaborative project in which a team of North Korean architects and Soviet technical advisors took their respective roles. Beginning in the late 1980s, North Korea, which had been struggling with economic decline and an increasing sense of lagging behind in its rivalry with its Southern counterpart, used heroic narratives during the 1950s' postwar reconstruction period as an important propaganda tool for their regime. In this mythical narrative of Pyongyang's reconstruction, massive economic and technical aid from other communist countries has often disappeared, and the memory of the architects who contributed greatly to the reconstruction but later purged in North Korea have also completely vanished. Kim Jung-hee, meanwhile, remained in this epic as the founding architect who rebuilt the city in faithful accordance with the leadership of Kim Il Sung.

• Analyses & Alternatives
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• v.8 no.1
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• pp.87-109
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• 2024

At the 8th Party Congress in 2021, North Korea announced a plan to build 50,000 housing units in Pyongyang, and this paper analyzes the economic effects and related informal costs of of the project. Currently, Pyongyang is experiencing a significant housing shortage. It is estimated that the number of households in Pyongyang increased by 184,000 between 1994 and 2020, while the estimated new housing supply during the period was only 30,000. Pyongyang's 50,000 housing units construction project is characterized by the goal of improving the living conditions of workers, the application of the new city construction method, and the largest state-led housing construction since the Arduous March. The project is expected to generate economic effects such as increasing workers' motivation to work, increasing tourism resources, and generating income from related industries. On the one hand, a significant portion of the construction cost of the 50,000-unit housing project in Pyongyang is passed on to companies and households in the form of informal cost such as quasi-taxes and manpower mobilization. In addition, there may be congestion in the power supply and sewerage facilities that occur when moving in. If these costs are not taken into account, the feasibility of a housing construction project may not be properly assessed, making it difficult to sustain it in the long term.

• Weed & Turfgrass Science
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• v.6 no.1
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• pp.28-31
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• 2017

The mutation rate of proline in the position 197 (Pro197) in acetohydroxy acid synthase (AHAS) is highest among sulfonylurea (SU) herbicide-resistance mutants. Therefore, it is significant to investigate the resistance mechanism for the mutation and to develop the herbicides specific to the mutants. SU herbicide resistance mechanism of the mutants, 197Ser, 197Thr and 197Ala, in AHAS were targeted for designing new SU-herbicide. We did molecular dynamics (MD) simulation for understanding SU herbicide-resistance mechanisms of AHAS mutants and designed new herbicides with docking and MD evaluations. We have found that mutation to 197Ala and 197Ser enlarged the entrance of the active site, while 197Thr contracted. Map of the root mean square derivation (RMSD) and radius gyrations (Rg) revealed the domain indicating the conformations for herbicide resistant. Based on the enlarging-contracting mechanism of active site entrance, we designed new herbicides with substitution at the heterocyclic moiety of a SU herbicide for the complementary binding to the changed active site entrances of mutants, and designed new herbicides. We confirmed that our screened new herbicides bonded to both AHAS wild type and mutants with higher affinity, showing more stable binding conformation than the existing herbicides.

• Journal of the Korean Institute of Traditional Landscape Architecture
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• v.38 no.2
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• pp.14-30
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• 2020

This study focuses on the fact that pictorial maps in the late Joseon Dynasty were conceptual diagrams with the place names perceived by the people at the time of their production. In this regard, targeting on five pictorial maps, the humanistic landscape characteristics of Pyongyang, which had cultural identities such as a historically old, commercial, and Pungnyu(appreciation for the arts) city, were derived as follows. First, the historic legitimacy of Pyongyang Castle was represented by ritual and religious facilities. They include 'Dangunjeon' and 'Gijagung' related to the nation founder, 'Munmujeong': the remains of Goguryeo, 'Sajikdan' & 'Pyongyanggangdan': the place of the national rites, Hyanggyo and Seowon: education & rite functions, Buddhism and Taoist facilities, 'Yongsindang', 'Sanshindang', and 'Jesindan': folk religion facilities. Gija-related facilities, which became symbols of Pyongyang due to the importance of Small-Sinocentrism and Gija dignity tendency, were distributed throughout Pyongyang Castle though, the facilities related to King Dongmyeong of Goguryeo and the spaces of religion praying for blessings are spread in Bukseong and on the riverside of Daedonggang each. Second, as a Pyongando Province's economic center, Pyongyang's commercial landscape was represented by logistics and transportation facilities. The Daedonggang River, which was in charge of transportation functions, had many decks such as 'Yangmyeongpo', 'Cheongryongpo' and 'Waeseongjin' and bridges, such as 'Yeongjegyo' and 'Gangdonggyo', which connected major transportation routes. The road network was created in Oeseong area to facilitate logistics transportation and management, and many warehouses named after the jurisdiction of Pyongyangbu were distributed near the roads and Provincial Offices of the main gates. In addition, it was characterized by the urban area systematically divided with hierarchical roads, 'Bukjangnim' of willow trees planted on the main entrance roads of Pyongyang Castle, a linear landscape created by 'Simnijangnim' consisting of mixed forests with elm trees. Third, Pungnyu City is realized by the distribution of amusement facilities. The riverside of Daedonggang adjacent to Naeseong exhibits characteristics of artificial landscape such as a canal leading to the inside of the castle, a docking facility with embankments, and a port with cargo ships anchored. However, Bukseong of the natural surroundings had numerous pavilions and platforms such as 'Bubyeongnu', 'Eulmildae', 'Choeseungdae', 'Jebyeokjeong' and engraved letters such as 'Cheongnyubyeok', 'Jangbangho'. 'Osunjeong', 'Byeogwolji', 'Banwolji' near 'Sachang', and 'Aeryeondang', built on the island of a square pond, created waterscape in Naeseong invisible from the Daedonggang, and for practical purposes, ponds and repeated willow vegetation landscape related to Gija were placed in the western rampart of Jungseong. In addition, 'Seonyeondong', a cemetery of Gisaeng, located near by Chilseongmun, was used as poem titles and themes by literary people, contributing to the creation of the Pungnyu image of Pyongyang.

• Journal of National Security and Military Science
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• s.5
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• pp.173-202
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• 2007

After successful nuclear tests Pakistan launched a more severe surprise attack toward India than before. It is highly possible that North Korea will adopt this Pakistan military strategy if it is armed with nuclear weapons. The North Korean forces armed, with nuclear bombs could make double its war capability through strengthening aggressive force structure and come into effect on blocking reinforcement of the US forces at the initial phase of war time. Therefore we may regard that Pyongyang's nuclear arming is a major one of various factors which increase possibility of waging a conventional warfare or a nuclear war. North Korea's high self-confidence after nuclear arming will heighten tension on the Korean Peninsula via aggressive military threat or terror toward South Korea, and endeavor to accomplish its political purpose via low-intensity conflicts. For instance, nuclear arming of the Pyongyang regime enforces the North Korean forces to invade the Northern Limit Line(NLL), provoke naval battles at the West Sea, and occupy one or two among the Five Islands at the West Sea. In that case, the South Korean forces will be faced with a serious dilemma. In order to recapture the islands, Seoul should be ready for escalating a war. However it is hard to imagine that South Korea fights with North Korea armed with nuclear weapons. This paper concludes that the Pyongyang regime after nuclear arming strongly tends to occupy superiority of military strategy and wage military provocations on the Korean Peninsula.