• 제목/요약/키워드: Man's Will

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노론의 연원과 전개, 철학사상과 현실인식 (An origin and development, the thought and understanding of actual world of Noron)

  • 김문준
    • 한국철학논집
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    • 제32호
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    • pp.79-112
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    • 2011
  • 노론(老論)은 숙종대에 결성된 이후 조선의 정국을 주도한 집권 세력으로서 조선이 멸망할 때까지 지속적으로 조선의 정국을 주도했다. 노론의 학문과 사상의 전개는 크게 네 시기로 나누어 볼 수 있다. 첫째, 17세기 후기에서 18세기 초에 이르는 숙종대의 붕당 정치 시기, 둘째 18세기 중기에서 후기에 이르는 영정조대의 탕평 시기, 셋째 19세기 이후의 세도 정치 시기, 넷째 19세기 후기에서 구한말에 이르는 시기 등이다. 이렇게 구분하여 노론의 연원과 전개 양상을 개략적으로 살펴볼 수 있다. 노론의 전반적인 특징은 노론의 정신적 지주로 송시열을 존숭하였고, 존주자 양이적을 추구하는 조선중화론에 의한 군자당론을 주장하였으며, 일도설(一途說)과 기질지성(氣質之性)에 관한 학설에 대해 율곡 성리학을 보완적으로 계승하였고, 이단 배척과 정학 수호를 중시하여, 결국 천주교 탄압으로 표출된 양상으로 요약 정리할 수 있다. 노론계의 특징적인 학자로는 학문과 정치 양 측면에서 보았을 때 수암(遂庵) 권상하(權尙夏)(1641~1721), 농암(農巖) 김창협(金昌協)(1651~1708), 도암(陶庵) 이재(李縡)(1680~1746) 등이 주목되는 인물이다. 17세기 이후의 치열한 권력 쟁탈 가운데에 사상적 맥락이나 학문사상이 정국 변화의 핵심적인 요인이라고 보기는 어렵다. 조광조의 지치주의 이후 조선시대 공론(公論)은 누구나 동의하는 보편적인 논의를 지칭하지만 사림이 분열한 이후에는 당파적 이해를 반영하는 당론(黨論)과 구분하기 어려워지게 되었다. 이런 가운데 송시열을 추숭한 노론 계열의 학자들은 존주자(尊朱子) 양이적(攘夷狄)을 기치로 삼고 왕이나 권세가들의 권력 남용을 제어하고 강력한 정치적 통일을 이루어 도의(道義) 사회를 구현하려고 했다. 그러나 점차 17세기에 수립한 당시의 정치적 동기와 목표는 상실하고 결국 탕평에 반대한 노론 벽파가 정조(正祖) 사후에 세도정권(勢道政權)을 만들어 내면서 정국을 장악하고 권세를 전횡하는 폐해로 귀결되었다. 노론의 현실 대응 논리와 행적은 정학일치(政學一致)라는 한국 도학정치의 특성이 극단화되어 표출된 모습이라고 평가할 수 있다.

전국 야생 벌목 분포에 대한 기후요인 영향 연구 (Effects of Climatic Factors on the Nationwide Distribution of Wild Aculeata (Insecta: Hymenoptera))

  • 유동수;권오창;신만석;김정규;이상훈
    • 한국환경생태학회지
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    • 제36권3호
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    • pp.303-317
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    • 2022
  • 온실가스 배출 증가에 의한 기후변화는 화분매개곤충과 식물과의 생태적 상호작용인 수분생태계와 농업생태계를 포함한 자연생태계를 변화시킬 수 있다. 특히 수분생태계에서 중요한 야생벌(wild bee)은 기후변화에 의해 감소되고 있어서 결국 농업경제, 현화식물의 생태활동, 나아가 전체 생물종 다양성에 악 영향을 끼치고 있음이 보고되고 있다. 따라서 지구온난화에 의해 한반도(남한)에서도 매년 기온이 상승하고 있고, 그에 따른 기후변화 발생으로 한반도 내 야생벌의 생태활동에 영향을 주고 있음을 예상할 수 있다. 본 연구에서는 한반도(남한)에서 출현하는 야생벌(꿀벌상과, 말벌상과, 청벌상과)의 분포와 기후요인과의 관계를 검정하기 위하여, 2017년(37 조사지점)에서 2018년 (14 조사지점)까지 총 51개 조사지점을 대상으로 말레이즈 트랩을 이용하여 야생벌류의 출현현황을 파악하였다. 형태 및 문헌을 통해 동정한 야생벌류와 산림기후대에 따른 분포는 평균기온, 적산온도와 상관성이 있음을 확인하였다. 이러한 결과를 바탕으로 공통사회 경제경로(Shared Socioeconomic Pathways, SSP) 시나리오의 2-4.5와 5-8.5버전으로 BIOMOD 종분포 모형에 따라 남한 전역에서 출현한 야생벌과 기후대별로 특이적으로 출현한 종의 서식지 분포 변화를 예측하여 현재의 종 서식지 분포에서, 2050년과 2100년에 북쪽으로 서식지가 이동함을 확인하였다. 이를 통해 향후 지구온난화가 지속될 경우 국내 야생벌의 분포 변화가 일어 날 수 있고, 그로 인한 한반도의 생태계 변화가 야기될 수 있음을 예측할 수 있었다. 본 연구결과는 기후변화에 따른 수분생태계 및 그와 관련된 영향에 대한 연구와 야생벌 관리를 위한 정책수립을 위해 참조할 수 있는 연구자료가 될 수 있을 것으로 기대하고 있다.

대순진리회의 상생생태론 연구 - 상생의 의미를 중심으로 - (The Sangsaeng Ecological Theory of Daesoon Jinrihoe: Focusing on the Meaning of Sangsaeng)

  • 김귀만
    • 대순사상논총
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    • 제48집
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    • pp.375-406
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    • 2024
  • 이 글의 목적은 대순진리회의 생태주의 담론인 '상생생태론'에서 '상생'의 의미를 생태적으로 규정하는 데 있다. 인간을 대상으로 윤리적 측면에서 통용되던 상생이 그 적용 범위를 비인간까지 확장시키는 생태학의 영역에서 어떻게 적용될 수 있는지 상호의존성이라는 생태학의 개념으로 설명한다. 생태학에서의 상호의존성은 개체와 개체 사이에서 발생하는 긍정적, 부정적, 중립적인 관계를 조합하여 경쟁, 포식, 기생, 그리고 공생으로 구분한다. 개체와 개체 사이의 관계가 부정적으로 끝나더라도 생태계에는 긍정적인 영향을 끼칠 수 있으므로 모두 '의존'이라는 개념에 포함된다. 그러나 개체와 개체 사이의 부정적 결말은 원을 발생시킬 수 있고 이러한 상호의존은 상생윤리의 관점에서는 그대로 통용될 수 없다. 따라서 생태적 상생은 긍정적 상호의존의 관계만 해당하거나 혹은 포원이 존재하지 않는 포식, 기생, 경쟁의 관계도 포함될 수 있다. 생태론은 자연과 인간을 분리하지 않고 둘 사이를 통합적으로 이해할 수 있는 관점을 요구한다. 천지생인용인(天地生人用人)이라는 우주관은 우주와 인간, 자연과 인간의 관계를 상호의존적 관점에서 포착할 수 있게 한다. 천지는 자신의 존재 근거를 인간으로 삼았고, 지인은 자연의 법칙을 발견하고 그 배후에 있는 천지의 신성성까지 깨달아 비로소 천지와 인간, 자연과 인간의 깊은 상호의존의 관계가 성립한다. 그러나 근대적 인간이 등장하면서 자연을 짓밟고 신도의 권위를 떨어뜨림으로써 천지와 인간의 상호의존성은 붕괴된다. 해원상생과 보은상생은 천지와 인간, 자연과 인간 사이에 끊어진 상호의존성을 다시잇는 해결책이다. 공부 의례를 통해 해원상생을 실천하는 것은 자연과 인간의 상호의존성을 회복하는 길이다. 수도를 통해 도통에 도달하는 과정이 보은상생의 실천이며 이로써 인간은 생태적 본성을 지닌 인존으로 거듭나 자연과 영원한 상호의존을 누리게 된다. 요컨대 상생생태론에서의 상생은 자연과 인간이 상호의존성을 회복하고 그것을 영원히 지속할 수 있게 만드는 이념이자 실천이다.

탄력적 근로시간제 개선에 대한 연구 (A Study on the Improvement of Flexible Working Hours)

  • 권용만
    • 벤처혁신연구
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    • 제5권3호
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    • pp.57-70
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    • 2022
  • 현대의 산업자본주의는 근로의 제공과 임금의 수령이라는 관계가 사회를 규율하는 중요한 원리로 자리 잡고 있다. 근로계약에 따라 자신의 노동력에 대한 처분권을 사용자에게 맡기고 제공받는 임금은 직접적인 보상이 되고 있으며, 적절한 휴식의 보장으로 인간다운 삶의 보장과 재생산을 할 수 있어야 한다. 자유계약에 의한 근로관계의 구축은 근로자 보호에 문제점을 나타내고 있으며, 이에 따라 근로자에 대한 최소한의 권리로 근로시간의 최대치를 정하고 최소휴식의 기준을 설정·부여하고 있다. 근로시간의 단축은 근로자의 삶의 질이라는 측면에서 매우 중요하지만 효율적인 기업활동에 있어서도 중요한 문제이다. 우리나라는 2020년 기준 연간 근로시간이 1,908시간으로 장시간 근로를 하고 있으며, UN산하 자문기구인 지속가능발전해법네트워크(SDSN)가 조사한 행복지수에서 OECD 37개국 중에서 하위 3번째로 나타나고 있다. 이에 따라 근로시간 단축의 필요성은 인정되어, 2018년부터 1주의 최대 근로시간이 52시간으로 제한하고 있다. 이러한 상황에서 기업의 부가가치 창출력을 유지하고, 근로자의 다양한 니즈에 부응하기 위한 방안으로 법적으로 다양한 근로시간의 예외를 두고 있으며, 우리나라 근로기준법은 3개월 이내의 탄력적 근로시간제와 3개월을 초과하는 탄력적 근로시간제, 선택적 근로시간제와 근로시간의 연장을 허용하는 연장근로의 제한을 두어 이를 허용하고 있다. 하지만 2021년 개정된 탄력적 근로시간제를 적용하는 것과 최근 논의되고 있는 정산 단위기간의 확대에 대한 논의에서 탄력적 근로시간제의 문제점이 있어 이에 대한 개선이 필요하다. 따라서 본 논문은 탄력적 근로시간제의 문제점과 이에 때한 개선방안을 살펴보고자 한다. 탄력적 근로시간제는 미리정한 기준에 따라 특정일 또는 특정주에 법정근로시간을 초과하더라도 근로기준법에서 정하고 있는 근로시간에 위배되는 것이 아님과 동시에 초과한 연장근로에 대한 가산임금을 지급하지 않아도 되는 제도로 주로 계절별 시기별 업무량 편차가 심한 제조업, 판매서비스업, 연속사업이나 장기간 조업을 위한 전기·가스·수도, 운수업 등에 있어 교대근무형태로 유용하게 활용되고 있으며, 운용에 따라 보다 짧은 근무일 설정을 통한 휴일 확대 등 근로시간 단축의 방편으로 활용되기도 한다. 하지만 정산 단위기간을 확대할 경우 근로자가 수령할 수 있는 가산임금을 수령하지 못하게 되어 근로자에게 불리하다. 따라서 첫째, 현재 논의되고 있는 정산 단위기간 확대를 하려면 현행 기준에서 확대되는 기간에 대하여 추가임금 지급을 하도록 하여야 한다. 둘째, 탄력적 근로시간제의 개별근로자에 대한 적용을 개선하여 근로자대표와의 서면합의에 있어 개별근로자와 충분한 협의를 하도록 하는 조치가 필요하고, 셋째, 정산 단위기간 동안 연장 근로의 허용시간을 명확히 하여야 하며, 넷째, 1일 최대근로시간이 정해지지 않고 있어 근로시간의 한도를 최대 근로시간으로 제한하거나 연속휴식에 대한 적용이 필요하며, 추가적으로 근로자대표의 서면합의가 탄력적 근로시간제의 적용에 있어 중요한 문제이므로 근로자대표의 대표성을 확보하여야 할 것이다.

일본 '고증파(考證派)' 의학에 관한 연구 (A Study on The 'Kao Zheng Pai'(考證派) of The Traditional Medicine of Japan)

  • 박현국;김기욱
    • 대한한의학원전학회지
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    • 제20권4호
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    • pp.211-250
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    • 2007
  • 1. The 'Kao Zheng Pai(考證派) comes from the 'Zhe Zhong Pai' and is a school that is influenced by the confucianism of the Qing dynasty. In Japan Inoue Kinga(井上金娥), Yoshida Koton(吉田篁墩) became central members, and the rise of the methodology of historical research(考證學) influenced the members of the 'Zhe Zhong Pai', and the trend of historical research changed from confucianism to medicine, making a school of medicine based on the study of texts and proving that the classics were right. 2. Based on the function of 'Nei Qu Li '(內驅力) the 'Kao Zheng Pai', in the spirit of 'use confucianism as the base', researched letters, meanings and historical origins. Because they were influenced by the methodology of historical research(考證學) of the Qing era, they valued the evidential research of classic texts, and there was even one branch that did only historical research, the 'Rue Xue Kao Zheng Pai'(儒學考證派). Also, the 'Yi Xue Kao Zheng Pai'(醫學考證派) appeared by the influence of Yoshida Kouton and Kariya Ekisai(狩谷掖齋). 3. In the 'Kao Zheng Pai(考證派)'s theories and views the 'Yi Xue Kao Zheng Pai' did not look at medical scriptures like the "Huang Di Nei Jing"("黃帝內經") and did not do research on 'medical' related areas like acupuncture, the meridian and medicinal herbs. Since they were doctors that used medicine, they naturally were based on 'formulas'(方劑) and since their thoughts were based on the historical ideologies, they valued the "Shang Han Ja Bing Lun" which was revered as the 'ancestor of all formulas'(衆方之祖). 4. The lives of the important doctors of the 'Kao Zheng Pai' Meguro Dotaku(目黑道琢) Yamada Seichin(山田正珍), Yamada Kyoko(山田業廣), Mori Ritsi(森立之) Kitamura Naohara(喜多村直寬) are as follows. 1) Meguro Dotaku(目黑道琢 1739${\sim}$1798) was born of lowly descent but, using his intelligence and knowledge, became a professor as a Shi Jing Yi(市井醫) and as a professor for 34 years at Ji Shou Guan mastered the "Huang Di Nei Jing" after giving over 300 lectures. Since his pupil, Isawara Ken taught the Lan Men Wu Zhe(蘭門五哲) and Shibue Chusai, Mori Ritsi(森立之), Okanishi Gentei(岡西玄亭), Kiyokawa Gendoh(淸川玄道) and Yamada Kyoko(山田業廣), Meguro Dotaku is considered the founder of the 'Yi Xue Kao Zheng Pai'. 2) The family of Yamada Seichin(山田正珍 1749${\sim}$1787) had been medical officials in the Makufu(幕府) and the many books that his ancestors had left were the base of his art. Seichin learned from Shan Ben Bei Shan(山本北山), a 'Zhe Zhong Pai' scholar, and put his efforts into learning, teaching and researching the "Shang Han Lun"("傷寒論"). Living in a time between 'Gu Fang Pai'(古方派) member Nakanishi Goretada(中西惟忠) and 'Kao Zheng Pai' member Taki Motohiro(多紀元簡), he wrote 11 books, 2 of which express his thoughts and research clearly, the "Shang Han Lun Ji Cheng"("傷寒論集成") and "Shang Han Kao"("傷寒考"). His comparison of the 'six meridians'(3 yin, 3 yang) between the "Shang Han Lun" and the "Su Wen Re Lun"("素問 熱論) and his acknowledgement of the need and rationality of the concept of Yin-Yang and Deficient-Replete distinguishes him from the other 'Gu Fang Pai'. Also, his dissertation of the need for the concept doesn't use the theories of latter schools but uses the theory of the "Shang Han Lun" itself. He even researched the historical parts, such as terms like 'Shen Nong Chang Bai Cao'(神農嘗百草) and 'Cheng Qi Tang'(承氣湯) 3) The ancestor of Yamada Kyoko(山田業廣) was a court physician, and learned confucianism from Kao Zheng Pai 's Ashikawa Genan(朝川善庵) and medicine from Isawa Ranken and Taki Motokata(多紀元堅), and the secret to smallpox from Ikeda Keisui(池田京水). He later became a lecturer at the Edo Yi Xue Guan(醫學館) and was invited as the director to the Ji Zhong(濟衆) hospital. He also became the first owner of the Wen Zhi She(溫知社), whose main purpose was the revival of kampo, and launched the monthly magazine Wen Zi Yi Tan(溫知醫談). He also diagnosed and prescribed for the prince Ming Gong(明宮). His works include the "Jing Fang Bian"("經方辨"), "Shang Han Lun Si Ci"("傷寒論釋司"), "Huang Zhao Zhu Jia Zhi Yan Ji Yao"("皇朝諸家治驗集要") and "Shang Han Ja Bing Lun Lei Juan"("傷寒雜病論類纂"). of these, the "Jing Fang Bian"("經方辨") states that the Shi Gao(石膏) used in the "Shang Han Lun" had three meanings-Fa Biao(發表), Qing Re(淸熱), Zi Yin(滋陰)-which were from 'symptoms', and first deducted the effects and then told of the reason. Another book, the "Jiu Zhe Tang Du Shu Ji"("九折堂讀書記") researched and translated the difficult parts of the "Shang Han Lun", "Jin Qui Yao Lue", "Qian Jin Fang"("千金方"), and "Wai Tai Mi Yao"("外臺秘要"). He usually analyzed the 'symptoms' of diseases but the composition, measurement, processing and application of medicine were all in the spectrum of 'analystic research' and 'researching analysis'. 4) The ancestors of Mori Rits(森立之 1807${\sim}$ 1885) were warriors but he became a doctor by the will of his mother, and he learned from Shibue Chosai(澁江抽齋) and Isawaran Ken and later became a pupil of Shou Gu Yi Zhai, a historical research scholar. He then became a lecturer of medical herbs at the Yi Xue Guan, and later participated in the proofreading of "Yi Xin Fang"("醫心方") and with Chosai compiled the "Jing Ji Fang Gu Zhi"("神農本草經"). He visited the Chinese scholar Yang Shou Jing(楊守敬) in 1881 and exchanged books and ideas. Of his works, there are the collections(輯複本) of "Shen Nong Ben Cao Jing"(神農本草經) and "You Xiang Yi Hwa"("遊相醫話") and the records, notes, poems, and diaries such as "Zhi Yuan Man Lu"("枳園漫錄") and "Zhi Yuan Sui Bi"("枳園隨筆") that were not published. His thoughts were that in restoring the "Shen Nong Ben Cao Jing", "the herb to the doctor is like the "Shuo Wen Jie Zi"("說文解字") to the scholar", and he tried to restore the ancient herbal text using knowledge of medicine and investigation(考據). Also with Chosai he compiled the "Jing Ji Fang Gu Zhi"("經籍訪古志") using knowledge of ancient text. Ritzi left works on pure investigation, paid much attention to social problems, and through 12 years of poverty treated all people and animals in all branches of medicine, so he is called a 'half confucianist half doctor'(半儒半醫). 5) Kitamurana Ohira(喜多村直寬 1804${\sim}$1876) learned scriptures and ancient texts from confucian scholar Asaka Gonsai, and learned medicine from his father Huai Yaun(槐園). He became a teacher in the Yi Xue Guan in his middle ages, and to repay his country, he printed 266 volumes of "Yi Fang Lei Ju("醫方類聚") and 1000 volumes of "Tai Ping Yu Lan"("太平禦覽") and devoted it to his country to be spread. His works are about 40 volumes including "Jin Qui Yao Lue Shu Yi" and "Lao Yi Zhi Yan" but most of them are researches on the "Shang Han Za Bing Lun". In his "Shang Han Lun Shu Yi"("傷寒論疏義") he shows the concept of the six meridians through the Yin-Yang, Superficial or internal, cold or hot, deficient or replete state of diseases, but did not match the names with the six meridians of the meridian theory, and this has something in common with the research based on the confucianism of Song(宋儒). In clinical treatment he was positive toward old and new methods and also the experience of civilians, but was negative toward western medicine. 6) The ancestor of the Taki family Tanbano Yasuyori(丹波康賴 912-955) became a Yi Bo Shi(醫博士) by his medical skills and compiled the "Yi Xin Fang"("醫心方"). His first son Tanbano Shigeaki(丹波重明) inherited the Shi Yao Yuan(施藥院) and the third son Tanbano Masatada(丹波雅忠) inherited the Dian You Tou(典藥頭). Masatada's descendents succeeded him for 25 generations until the family name was changed to Jin Bao(金保) and five generations later it was changed again to Duo Ji(多紀). The research scholar Taki Motohiro was in the third generation after the last name was changed to Taki, and his family kept an important part in the line of medical officers in Japan. Taki Motohiro(多紀元簡 1755-1810) was a teacher in the Yi Xue Guan where his father was residing, and became the physician for the general Jia Qi(家齊). He had a short temper and was not good at getting on in the world, and went against the will of the king and was banished from Ao Yi Shi(奧醫師). His most famous works, the "Shang Han Lun Ji Yi" and "Jin Qui Yao Lue Ji Yi" are the work of 20 years of collecting the theories of many schools and discussing, and is one of the most famous books on the "Shang Han Lun" in Japan. "Yi Sheng" is a collection of essays on research. Also there are the "Su Wen Shi"("素問識"), "Ling Shu Shi"("靈樞識"), and the "Guan lu Fang Yao Bu"("觀聚方要補"). Taki Motohiro(多紀元簡)'s position was succeeded by his third son Yuan Yin(元胤 1789-1827), and his works include works of research such as "Nan Jing Shu Jeng"("難經疏證"), "Ti Ya"("體雅"), "Yao Ya"("藥雅"), "Ji Ya"("疾雅"), "Ming Yi Gong An"("名醫公案"), and "Yi Ji Kao"("醫籍考"). The "Yi Ji Kao" is 80 volumes in length and lists about 3000 books on medicine in China before the Qing Dao Guang(道光), and under each title are the origin, number of volumes, state of existence, and, if possible, the preface, Ba Yu(跋語) and biography of the author. The younger sibling of Yuan Yin(元胤 1789-1827), Yuan Jian(元堅 1795-1857) expounded ancient writings at the Yi Xue Guan only after he reached middle age, was chosen for the Ao Yi Shi(奧醫師) and later became a Fa Yan(法眼), Fa Yin(法印) and Yu Chi(樂匙). He left about 15 texts, including "Su Wen Shao Shi"("素間紹識"), "Yi Xin Fang"("醫心方"), published in school, "Za Bing Guang Yao"("雜病廣要"), "Shang Han Guang Yao"(傷寒廣要), and "Zhen Fu Yao Jue"("該腹要訣"). On the Taki family's founding and working of the Yi Xue Guan Yasuka Doumei(失數道明) said they were "the people who took the initiative in Edo era kampo medicine" and evaluated their deeds in the fields of 'research of ancient text', 'the founding of Ji Shou Guan and medical education', 'publication business', 'writing of medical text'. 5. The doctors of the 'Kao Zheng Pai ' based their operations on the Edo Yi Xue Guan, and made groups with people with similar ideas to them, making a relationship 'net'. For example the three families of Duo Ji(多紀), Tang Chuan(湯川) and Xi Duo Cun(喜多村) married and adopted with and from each other and made prefaces and epitaphs for each other. Thus, the Taki family, the state science of the Makufu, the tendency of thinking, one's own interests and glory, one's own knowledge, the need of the society all played a role in the development of kampo medicine in the 18th and 19th century.

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일본 '고증파(考證派)' 의학에 관한 연구 (A Study on The 'Kao Zheng Pai'(考證派) of The Traditional Medicine of Japan)

  • 박현국;김기욱
    • 동국한의학연구소논문집
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    • 제10권
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    • pp.1-40
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    • 2008
  • 1.The 'Kao Zheng Pai'(考證派) comes from the 'Zhe Zhong Pai(折衷派)' and is a school that is influenced by the confucianism of the Qing dynasty. In Japan Inoue Kinga(井上金峨), Yoshida Koton(古田篁墩 $1745{\sim}1798$) became central members, and the rise of the methodology of historical research(考證學) influenced the members of the 'Zhe Zhong Pai', and the trend of historical research changed from confucianism to medicine, making a school of medicine based on the study of texts and proving that the classics were right. 2. Based on the function of 'Nei Qu Li'(內驅力) the 'Kao Zheng Pai', in the spirit of 'use confucianism as the base', researched letters, meanings and historical origins. Because they were influenced by the methodology of historical research(考證學) of the Qing era, they valued the evidential research of classic texts, and there was even one branch that did only historical research, the 'Rue Xue Kao Zheng Pai'(儒學考證派). Also, the 'Yi Xue Kao Zheng Pai'(醫學考證派) appeared by the influence of Yoshida Kouton and Kariya Ekisai(狩谷掖齋). 3. In the 'Kao Zheng Pai(考證派)'s theories and views the 'Yi Xue Kao Zheng Pai' did not look at medical scriptures like the "Huang Di Nei Jing"("黃帝內經") and did not do research on 'medical' related areas like acupuncture, the meridian and medicinal herbs. Since they were doctors that used medicine, they naturally were based on 'formulas'(方劑) and since their thoughts were based on the historical ideologies, they valued the "Shang Han Ja Bing Lun" which was revered as the 'ancestor of all formulas'(衆方之祖). 4. The lives of the important doctors of the 'Kao Zheng Pai' Meguro Dotaku(目黑道琢) Yamada Seichin(山田正珍), Yamada Kyoko(山田業廣), Mori Ritsi(森立之) Kitamura Naohara(喜多村直寬) are as follows. 1) Meguro Dotaku(目黑道琢 $1739{\sim}1798$) was born of lowly descent but, using his intelligence and knowledge, became a professor as a Shi Jing Yi(市井醫) and as a professor for 34 years at Ji Shou Guan(躋壽館) mastered the "Huang Di Nei Jing" after giving over 300 lectures. Since his pupil, Isawara Ken(伊澤蘭軒) taught the Lan Men Wu Zhe(蘭門五哲) and Shibue Chusai(澀江抽齋), Mori Ritsi(森立之), Okanishi Gentei(岡西玄亭), Kiyokawa Gendoh(淸川玄道) and Yamada Kyoko(山田業廣), Meguro Dotaku is considered the founder of the 'Yi Xue Kao Zheng Pai'. 2) The family of Yamada Seichin(山田正珍 $1749{\sim}1787$) had been medical officials in the Makufu(幕府) and the many books that his ancestors had left were the base of his art. Seichin learned from Shan Ben Bei Shan(山本北山), a 'Zhe Zhong Pai' scholar, and put his efforts into learning, teaching and researching the "Shang Han Lun"("傷寒論"). Living in a time between 'Gu Fang Pai'(古方派) member Nakanishi Goretada(中西惟忠) and 'Kao Zheng Pai' member Taki Motohiro(多紀元簡), he wrote 11 books, 2 of which express his thoughts and research clearly, the "Shang Han Lun Ji Cheng"("傷寒論集成") and "Shang Han Kao"("傷寒考"). His comparison of the 'six meridians'(3 yin, 3 yang) between the "Shang Han Lun" and the "Su Wen Re Lun"("素問 熱論") and his acknowledgement of the need and rationality of the concept of Yin-Yang and Deficient-Replete distinguishes him from the other 'Gu Fang Pai'. Also, his dissertation of the need for the concept doesn't use the theories of latter schools but uses the theory of the "Shang Han Lun" itself. He even researched the historical parts, such as terms like 'Shen Nong Chang Bai Cao'(神農嘗百草) and 'Cheng Qi Tang'(承氣湯). 3) The ancestor of Yamada Kyoko(山田業廣) was a court physician, and learned confucianism from Kao Zheng Pai's Ashikawa Genan(朝川善庵) and medicine from Isawa Ranken(伊澤蘭軒) and Taki Motokata(多紀元堅), and the secret to smallpox from Ikeda Keisui(池田京水). He later became a lecturer at the Edo Yi Xue Guan(醫學館) and was invited as the director to the Ji Zhong(濟衆) hospital. He also became the first owner of the Wen Zhi She(溫知社), whose main purpose was the revival of kampo, and launched the monthly magazine Wen Zi Yi Tan(溫知醫談). He also diagnosed and prescribed for the prince Ming Gong(明宮). His works include the "Jing Fang Bian"("經方辨"), "Shang Han Lun Si Ci"("傷寒論釋詞"), "Huang Zhao Zhu Jia Zhi Yan Ji Yao"("皇朝諸家治驗集要") and "Shang Han Ja Bing Lun Lei Juan"("傷寒雜病論類纂"). of these, the "Jing Fang Bian"("經方辨") states that the Shi Gao(石膏) used in the "Shang Han Lun" had three meanings-Fa Biao(發表), Qing Re(淸熱), Zi Yin(滋陰)-which were from 'symptoms', and first deducted the effects and then told of the reason. Another book, the "Jiu Zhe Tang Du Shu Ji"("九折堂讀書記") researched and translated the difficult parts of the "Shang Han Lun", "Jin Qui Yao Lue"("金匱要略"), "Qian Jin Fang"("千金方"), and "Wai Tai Mi Yao"("外臺秘要"). He usually analyzed the 'symptoms' of diseases but the composition, measurement, processing and application of medicine were all in the spectrum of 'analystic research' and 'researching analysis'. 4) The ancestors of Mori Ritsi(森立之 $1807{\sim}1885$) were warriors but he became a doctor by the will of his mother, and he learned from Shibue Chosai(澁江抽齋) and Isawaran Ken(伊澤蘭軒) and later became a pupil of Shou Gu Yi Zhai(狩谷掖齋), a historical research scholar. He then became a lecturer of medical herbs at the Yi Xue Guan, and later participated in the proofreading of "Yi Xin Fang"("醫心方") and with Chosai compiled the "Jing Ji Fang Gu Zhi"("經籍訪古志"). He visited the Chinese scholar Yang Shou Jing(楊守敬) in 1881 and exchanged books and ideas. Of his works, there are the collections(輯複本) of "Shen Nong Ben Cao Jing"("神農本草經") and "You Xiang Yi Hwa"("遊相醫話") and the records, notes, poems, and diaries such as "Zhi Yuan Man Lu"("枳園漫錄") and "Zhi Yuan Sui Bi"(枳園隨筆) that were not published. His thoughts were that in restoring the "Shen Nong Ben Cao Jing", "the herb to the doctor is like the "Shuo Wen Jie Zi"(說文解字) to the scholar", and he tried to restore the ancient herbal text using knowledge of medicine and investigation(考據), Also with Chosai he compiled the "Jing Ji Fang Gu Zhi"("經籍訪古志") using knowledge of ancient text. Ritzi left works on pure investigation, paid much attention to social problems, and through 12 years of poverty treated all people and animals in all branches of medicine, so he is called a 'half confucianist half doctor'(半儒半醫). 5) Kitamurana Ohira(喜多村直寬, $1804{\sim}1876$) learned scriptures and ancient texts from confucian scholar Asaka Gonsai(安積艮齋), and learned medicine from his father Huai Yaun(槐園), He became a teacher in the Yi Xue Guan in his middle ages, and to repay his country, he printed 266 volumes of "Yi Fang Lei Ju"("醫方類聚") and 1000 volumes of "Tai Ping Yu Lan"("太平禦覽") and devoted it to his country to be spread. His works are about 40 volumes including "Jin Qui Yao Lue Shu Yi"("金匱要略疏義") and "Lao Yi Zhi Yan"(老醫巵言) but most of them are researches on the "Shang Han Za Bing Lun". In his "Shang Han Lun Shu Yi"("傷寒論疏義") he shows the concept of the six meridians through the Yin-Yang, Superficial or internal, cold or hot, deficient or replete state of diseases, but did not match the names with the six meridians of the meridian theory, and this has something in common with the research based on the confucianism of Song(宋儒). In clinical treatment he was positive toward old and new methods and also the experience of civilians, but was negative toward western medicine. 6) The ancestor of the Taki family Tanbano Yasuyori(丹波康賴 $912{\sim}955$) became a Yi Bo Shi(醫博士) by his medical skills and compiled the "Yi Xin Fang"("醫心方"). His first son Tanbano Shigeaki(丹波重明) inherited the Shi Yao Yuan(施藥院) and the third son Tanbano Masatada(丹波雅忠) inherited the Dian You Tou(典藥頭). Masatada's descendents succeeded him for 25 generations until the family name was changed to Jin Bao(金保) and five generations later it was changed again to Duo Ji(多紀). The research scholar Taki Motohiro was in the third generation after the last name was changed to Taki, and his family kept an important part in the line of medical officers in Japan. Taki Motohiro(多紀元簡 $1755{\sim}1810$) was a teacher in the Yi Xue Guan where his father was residing, and became the physician for the general Jia Qi(家齊). He had a short temper and was not good at getting on in the world, and went against the will of the king and was banished from Ao Yi Shi(奧醫師). His most famous works, the "Shang Han Lun Ji Yi"("傷寒論輯義") and "Jin Qui Yao Lue Ji Yi"("金匱要略輯義") are the work of 20 years of collecting the theories of many schools and discussing, and is one of the most famous books on the "Shang Han Lun" in Japan. "Yi Sheng"("醫勝") is a collection of essays on research. Also there are the "Su Wen Shi"(素問識), "Ling Shu Shi"("靈樞識"), and the "Guan Ju Fang Yao Bu"("觀聚方要補"). Taki Motohiro(多紀元簡)'s position was succeeded by his third son Yuan Yin(元胤 $1789{\sim}1827$), and his works include works of research such as "Nan Jing Shu Jeng"(難經疏證), "Ti Ya"("體雅"), "Yao Ya"("藥雅"), "Ji Ya"(疾雅), "Ming Yi Gong An"(名醫公案), and "Yi Ji Kao"(醫籍考). The "Yi Ji Kao" is 80 volumes in length and lists about 3000 books on medicine in China before the Qing Dao Guang(道光), and under each title are the origin, number of volumes, state of existence, and, if possible, the preface, Ba Yu(跋語) and biography of the author. The younger sibling of Yuan Yin(元胤 $1789{\sim}1827$), Yuan Jian(元堅 $1795{\sim}1857$) expounded ancient writings at the Yi Xue Guan only after he reached middle age, was chosen for the Ao Yi Shi(奧醫師) and later became a Fa Yan(法眼), Fa Yin(法印) and Yu Chi(禦匙). He left about 15 texts, including "Su Wen Shao Shi"("素問紹識"), "Yi Xin Fang"("醫心方"), published in school, "Za Bing Guang Yao"("雜病廣要"), "Shang Han Guang Yao"("傷寒廣要"), and "Zhen Fu Yao Jue"("診腹要訣"). On the Taki family's founding and working of the Yi Xue Guan Yasuka Doumei(矢數道明) said they were "the people who took the initiative in Edo era kampo medicine" and evaluated their deeds in the fields of 'research of ancient text', the founding of Ji Shou Guan(躋壽館) and medical education', 'publication business', 'writing of medical text'. 5. The doctors of the 'Kao Zheng Pai' based their operations on the Edo Yi Xue Guan, and made groups with people with similar ideas to them, making a relationship 'net'. For example the three families of Duo Ji(多紀), Tang Chuan(湯川) and Xi Duo Cun(喜多村) married and adopted with and from each other and made prefaces and epitaphs for each other. Thus, the Taki family, the state science of the Makufu, the tendency of thinking, one's own interests and glory, one's own knowledge, the need of the society all played a role in the development of kampo medicine in the 18th and 19th century.

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누항도(陋巷圖)와 누항록(陋巷錄)을 통해 본 이만부의 공간철학과 식산정사의 원형경관 (A Study on Lee, Man-Bu's Thought of Space and Siksanjeongsa with Special Reference of Prototype Landscape Analyzing Nuhangdo(陋巷圖) and Nuhangnok(陋巷錄))

  • 강병선;이승연;신상섭;노재현
    • 한국전통조경학회지
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    • 제39권2호
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    • pp.15-28
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    • 2021
  • 경상북도 민속문화재 제76호로 지정된 '천운정사(天雲精舍)'는 식산 이만부가 1700년에 건립한 식산정사이다. 본 연구에서는 식산정사와 관련한 이만부의 생애와 은일관을 알아보고, 그의 정사경영의 결과물인 「누항록」과 《누항도》를 분석해 정사의 풍수적 입지와 영역성 및 원형경관을 추정하고, 은거한 선비가 자신의 공간에 담고자 했던 철학을 고찰하여 다음의 결과를 도출하였다. 첫째, 식산 이만부는 조선 후기 대표적 은둔형 유학자이다. 정사의 이름이자 이만부의 호인 '식산'은 마을의 뒷산(主山)에서 연유한 것으로 그는 생각(思), 몸(躬), 말(言), 사귐(交) 네 가지를 쉬고자 했다. 다난했던 숙종년간 남인 집안의 이만부는 '식산'이라는 호를 통해 은둔하고자 하는 그의 의지를 표상하였다. 둘째, 이만부는 식산정사의 입지, 공간구조, 건축물 및 조경시설물, 수목, 주변경관, 이용행태 등을 「누항록」에 기록하였고, 《누항도》화첩을 남겨 원형에 가까운 식산정사 복원 가능성이 비교적 높다. 셋째, 이만부는 외노곡이 밖에서 보면 사면이 두로 막혀있으나 안으로 들어서면 아늑하고 깊숙하며 멀리까지 내다보인다는 풍수적 지리관을 언급하고 있으며, 노곡마을 전체를 일컬어 식산정사라 했는데 이는 명명을 통해 의미를 부여하고 영역을 형성·확장하였음을 알 수 있다. 넷째, 식산정사의 공간구성은 연식공간, 교육공간, 후원공간, 휴식공간, 채원 및 약초밭으로 구분할 수 있다. 당과 루, 연지로 구성된 연식공간은 개인적 공간으로 호연지기, 천인합일의 흥취, 군자의 도리, 인을 생각하는 이만부의 거처이자 강학을 베풀던 공간이다. 다섯째, 양정재 영역은 교육공간으로서 양정재는 주역 몽괘에서 취한 이름으로 어린 학생들의 학문과 덕이 크고 밝게 성장하기를 기원한 이름이다. 여섯째, 간지정, 고반대, 세한단 등으로 구성된 후원공간은 식산정사 가장 안쪽의 숲이 우거진 곳을 정리하고 자연 입석과 고송을 병풍삼아 작은 정자를 지을 축대를 쌓은 곳으로, 멈춤의 미덕과 은자의 여유, 군자의 지조 등에 관한 뜻을 담고 있다. 일곱째, 식산정사 담장 밖 동쪽 시내 건너 고목이 우거진 곳에 단을 조성하여 영귀사라 하고 괴석을 쌓고 화초를 심어 휴식의 장소로 삼았다. 여덟째, 조선시대 선비들처럼 채소와 약초의 효능을 상세히 알고 있던 이만부는 정사 내에 채원과 약초밭을 가꾸었다. 아홉째, 식산 이만부는 식산정사의 각 공간별 건축물과 조경시설물에 대한 명명을 통한 의미 부여와 고사(古事)를 따른 식재를 통해 자신의 정사에 성리학적 이상향을 실현했음을 알 수 있다.

농촌(農村) 주민(住民)들의 의료필요도(醫療必要度)에 관(關)한 연구(硏究) (A Study Concerning Health Needs in Rural Korea)

  • 이성관;김두희;정종학;정극수;박상빈;최정헌;홍순호;라진훈
    • Journal of Preventive Medicine and Public Health
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    • 제7권1호
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    • pp.29-94
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    • 1974
  • Today most developed countries provide modern medical care for most of the population. The rural area is the more neglected area in the medical and health field. In public health, the philosophy is that medical care for in maintenance of health is a basic right of man; it should not be discriminated against racial, environmental or financial situations. The deficiency of the medical care system, cultural bias, economic development, and ignorance of the residents about health care brought about the shortage of medical personnel and facilities on the rural areas. Moreover, medical students and physicians have been taught less about rural health care than about urban health care. Medical care, therefore, is insufficient in terms of health care personnel/and facilities in rural areas. Under such a situation, there is growing concern about the health problems among the rural population. The findings presented in this report are useful measures of the major health problems and even more important, as a guide to planning for improved medical care systems. It is hoped that findings from this study will be useful to those responsible for improving the delivery of health service for the rural population. Objectives: -to determine the health status of the residents in the rural areas. -to assess the rural population's needs in terms of health and medical care. -to make recommendations concerning improvement in the delivery of health and medical care for the rural population. Procedures: For the sampling design, the ideal would be to sample according to the proportion of the composition age-groups. As the health problems would be different by group, the sample was divided into 10 different age-groups. If the sample were allocated by proportion of composition of each age group, some age groups would be too small to estimate the health problem. The sample size of each age-group population was 100 people/age-groups. Personal interviews were conducted by specially trained medical students. The interviews dealt at length with current health status, medical care problems, utilization of medical services, medical cost paid for medical care and attitudes toward health. In addition, more information was gained from the public health field, including environmental sanitation, maternal and child health, family planning, tuberculosis control, and dental health. The sample Sample size was one fourth of total population: 1,438 The aged 10-14 years showed the largest number of 254 and the aged under one year was the smallest number of 81. Participation in examination Examination sessions usually were held in the morning every Tuesday, Wenesday, and Thursday for 3 hours at each session at the Namchun Health station. In general, the rate of participation in medical examination was low especially in ages between 10-19 years old. The highest rate of participation among are groups was the under one year age-group by 100 percent. The lowest use rate as low as 3% of those in the age-groups 10-19 years who are attending junior and senior high school in Taegu city so the time was not convenient for them to recieve examinations. Among the over 20 years old group, the rate of participation of female was higher than that of males. The results are as follows: A. Publie health problems Population: The number of pre-school age group who required child health was 724, among them infants numbered 96. Number of eligible women aged 15-44 years was 1,279, and women with husband who need maternal health numbered 700. The age-group of 65 years or older was 201 needed more health care and 65 of them had disabilities. (Table 2). Environmental sanitation: Seventy-nine percent of the residents relied upon well water as a primary source of dringking water. Ninety-three percent of the drinking water supply was rated as unfited quality for drinking. More than 90% of latrines were unhygienic, in structure design and sanitation (Table 15). Maternal and child health: Maternal health Average number of pregnancies of eligible women was 4 times. There was almost no pre- and post-natal care. Pregnancy wastage Still births was 33 per 1,000 live births. Spontaneous abortion was 156 per 1,000 live births. Induced abortion was 137 per 1,000 live births. Delivery condition More than 90 percent of deliveries were conducted at home. Attendants at last delivery were laymen by 76% and delivery without attendants was 14%. The rate of non-sterilized scissors as an instrument used to cut the umbilical cord was as high as 54% and of sickles was 14%. The rate of difficult delivery counted for 3%. Maternal death rate estimates about 35 per 10,000 live births. Child health Consultation rate for child health was almost non existant. In general, vaccination rate of children was low; vaccination rates for children aged 0-5 years with BCG and small pox were 34 and 28 percent respectively. The rate of vaccination with DPT and Polio were 23 and 25% respectively but the rate of the complete three injections were as low as 5 and 3% respectively. The number of dead children was 280 per 1,000 living children. Infants death rate was 45 per 1,000 live births (Table 16), Family planning: Approval rate of married women for family planning was as high as 86%. The rate of experiences of contraception in the past was 51%. The current rate of contraception was 37%. Willingness to use contraception in the future was as high as 86% (Table 17). Tuberculosis control: Number of registration patients at the health center currently was 25. The number indicates one eighth of estimate number of tuberculosis in the area. Number of discharged cases in the past accounted for 79 which showed 50% of active cases when discharged time. Rate of complete treatment among reasons of discharge in the past as low as 28%. There needs to be a follow up observation of the discharged cases (Table 18). Dental problems: More than 50% of the total population have at least one or more dental problems. (Table 19) B. Medical care problems Incidence rate: 1. In one month Incidence rate of medical care problems during one month was 19.6 percent. Among these health problems which required rest at home were 11.8 percent. The estimated number of patients in the total population is 1,206. The health problems reported most frequently in interviews during one month are: GI trouble, respiratory disease, neuralgia, skin disease, and communicable disease-in that order, The rate of health problems by age groups was highest in the 1-4 age group and in the 60 years or over age group, the lowest rate was the 10-14 year age group. In general, 0-29 year age group except the 1-4 year age group was low incidence rate. After 30 years old the rate of health problems increases gradually with aging. Eighty-three percent of health problems that occured during one month were solved by primary medical care procedures. Seventeen percent of health problems needed secondary care. Days rested at home because of illness during one month were 0.7 days per interviewee and 8days per patient and it accounts for 2,161 days for the total productive population in the area. (Table 20) 2. In a year The incidence rate of medical care problems during a year was 74.8%, among them health problems which required rest at home was 37 percent. Estimated number of patients in the total population during a year was 4,600. The health problems that occured most frequently among the interviewees during a year were: Cold (30%), GI trouble (18), respiratory disease (11), anemia (10), diarrhea (10), neuralgia (10), parasite disease (9), ENT (7), skin (7), headache (7), trauma (4), communicable disease (3), and circulatory disease (3) -in that order. The rate of health problems by age groups was highest in the infants group, thereafter the rate decreased gradually until the age 15-19 year age group which showed the lowest, and then the rate increased gradually with aging. Eighty-seven percent of health problems during a year were solved by primary medical care. Thirteen percent of them needed secondary medical care procedures. Days rested at home because of illness during a year were 16 days per interviewee and 44 days per patient and it accounted for 57,335 days lost among productive age group in the area (Table 21). Among those given medical examination, the conditions observed most frequently were respiratory disease, GI trouble, parasite disease, neuralgia, skin disease, trauma, tuberculosis, anemia, chronic obstructive lung disease, eye disorders-in that order (Table 22). The main health problems required secondary medical care are as fellows: (previous page). Utilization of medical care (treatment) The rate of treatment by various medical facilities for all health problems during one month was 73 percent. The rate of receiving of medical care of those who have health problems which required rest at home was 52% while the rate of those who have health problems which did not required rest was 61 percent (Table 23). The rate of receiving of medical care for all health problems during a year was 67 percent. The rate of receiving of medical care of those who have health problems which required rest at home was 82 percent while the rate of those who have health problems which did not required rest was as low as 53 percent (Table 24). Types of medical facilitied used were as follows: Hospital and clinics: 32-35% Herb clinics: 9-10% Drugstore: 53-58% Hospitalization Rate of hospitalization was 1.7% and the estimate number of hospitalizations among the total population during a year will be 107 persons (Table 25). Medical cost: Average medical cost per person during one month and a year were 171 and 2,800 won respectively. Average medical cost per patient during one month and a year were 1,109 and 3,740 won respectively. Average cost per household during a year was 15,800 won (Table 26, 27). Solution measures for health and medical care problems in rural area: A. Health problems which could be solved by paramedical workers such as nurses, midwives and aid nurses etc. are as follows: 1. Improvement of environmental sanitation 2. MCH except medical care problems 3. Family planning except surgical intervention 4. Tuberculosis control except diagnosis and prescription 5. Dental care except operational intervention 6. Health education for residents for improvement of utilization of medical facilities and early diagnosis etc. B. Medical care problems 1. Eighty-five percent of health problems could be solved by primary care procedures by general practitioners. 2. Fifteen percent of health problems need secondary medical procedures by a specialist. C. Medical cost Concidering the economic situation in rural area the amount of 2,062 won per residents during a year will be burdensome, so financial assistance is needed gorvernment to solve health and medical care problems for rural people.

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