• Asian-Australasian Journal of Animal Sciences
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• v.14 no.6
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• pp.821-830
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• 2001

To study the effects of partial replacement of soybean meal (SBM) with palm kernel meal (PKM) and copra meal (CM) on growth performance, nutrient digestibility and carcass characteristics in finishing pigs, a total of 150 crossbred pigs (Landrace$\times$Duroc$\times$Yorkshire; average $52.11{\pm}1.08kg$ body weight) were alloted to five treatments, in a randomized block design. The treatments included 1) Control: without PKM or CM, 2) PKM2: 2% of palm kernel meal, 3) PKM4: 4% palm kernel meal, 4) CM2: 2% of copra meal, 5) CM4: 4% of copra meal. During the early finishing period (52~74 kg), growth performance was better in CM diets than in PKM diets or control diet, and in overall period (74~100 was lower (p<0.05) in PKM4 diet than the other diets. Nutrient digestibilies of PKM or CM substituted diets showed the tendency to be lower than those of control diet. In the early finishing period, total amino acid digestibilities of PKM and CM diets had the tendency to be lower than control diet, and in the late finishing period, they were lower (p<0.05) than control diet. Carcass length was longer (p<0.05) in the pigs fed 2% CM than in the pigs fed 4% PKM diet, but other carcass characteristics were not different among treatments. Although the dietary C14:0 content affected (p<0.05) on the C14:0 content in the carcass, the inclusion of PKM or CM in the diet did not affect the total saturated fatty acids and unsaturated fatty acids in the backfat of finishing pigs. Although it was not significant, supplementation of CM at the 2% and 4% of control group tended to decrease feed cost per kg weight gain by 2.89 to 1.42%, respectively. In conclusion, copra meal can be a valuable source of protein in the diet for finishing pigs and may replace other protein sources in pig diets to a considerable extent.

• Asian-Australasian Journal of Animal Sciences
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• v.28 no.11
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• pp.1614-1623
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• 2015

The objectives of the current experiment were to study the response of the growth performance of early finishing gilts to different net energy (NE) concentrations in diets, and to compare the NE values of diets between calculated NE values and measured NE values using French and Dutch CVB (Centraal Veevoederbureau; Central Bureau for Livestock Feeding) NE systems. In a metabolism trail, the NE concentrations in five diets used for the growth trial were determined based on digestible nutrient concentrations, digestible energy, and metabolizable energy using a replicated $5{\times}5$ Latin square design with 10 barrows (initial body weight [BW], $39.2{\pm}2.2kg$). In a growth trial, a total of 60 early finishing gilts (Landrace${\times}$Yorkshire; initial BW, $47.7{\pm}3.5kg$) were allotted to five dietary treatments of 8.0, 9.0, 10.0, 11.0, and 12.0 MJ NE/kg (calculated, as-is basis) with 12 replicate pens and one pig per pen in a 42-d feeding experiment. The NE and amino acid (AA) concentrations in all diets were calculated based on the values from NRC (2012). Ratios between standardized ileal digestible AA and NE concentrations in all diets were closely maintained. Pigs were allowed ad libitum access to feed and water. Results indicated that calculated NE concentrations in diets (i.e., five dietary treatments) were close to measured NE concentrations using French NE system in diets. The final BW was increased (linear and quadratic, p<0.05) with increasing NE concentrations in diets. Furthermore, average daily gain (ADG) was increased (linear and quadratic, p<0.01) with increasing NE concentrations in diets. There was a quadratic relationship (p<0.01) between average daily feed intake and NE concentrations in diets. Feed efficiency (G:F) was also increased (linear, p<0.01) as NE concentrations in diets were increased. The NE intake per BW gain (kcal NE/kg of BWG) was increased (linear, p<0.01) with increasing NE concentrations in diets that were predicted from both French and Dutch CVB NE systems. Linear regression indicated that predictability of daily NE intake from the BW of pigs was very low for both French ($R^2$, 0.366) and Dutch CVB ($R^2$, 0.374) NE systems. In conclusion, increasing NE concentrations in diets increase BW, ADG, G:F, and NE intake per BW gain of early finishing gilts. The BW of early finishing gilts is not a good sole variable for the prediction of daily NE intake.

• Asian-Australasian Journal of Animal Sciences
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• v.23 no.9
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• pp.1213-1220
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• 2010

This experiment evaluated the effects of dietary lysine restriction and energy density on growth performance, nutrient digestibility and meat quality of finishing pigs. A $2{\times}2$ factorial arrangement of treatments was utilized in a randomized complete block (RCB) design, and factor 1 was lysine restriction and factor 2 was energy density. The control diet was formulated to contain 3.265 Mcal of ME/kg, 0.75% lysine in the early-finishing phase and 3.265 Mcal of ME/kg, 0.60% lysine in the late-finishing phase and other nutrients met or exceeded NRC (1998) standards. Compared to the control diet (CON), lysine levels of experimental diets were restricted to 15% (treatment EL, EEL) or 30% (treatment ELL, EELL), whereas energy level of experimental diets was increased by 0.100 or 0.200 Mcal of ME/kg. A total of 100 crossbred pigs ([Yorkshire${\times}$Landrace]${\times}$Duroc), with average initial body weight of $58.47{\pm}1.42\;kg$, were allotted to 5 dietary treatments based on sex and body weight. Each treatment had 5 replicates with 4 pigs (two barrows and two gilts) per pen. ADG, ADFI and feed efficiency were calculated in an 8-week growth trial. In the late finishing period (5-8 weeks), pigs fed ELL or EELL diets had decreased ADG and feed efficiency (p<0.01), however, when the EEL diet was provided, a similar growth performance was observed compared to those fed the CON diet during the whole experimental period (p>0.05). In a metabolic trial, 15 pigs were used to evaluate the effect of dietary lysine restriction and energy density on nutrient digestibility. The digestibility of dry matter, crude fat and crude ash was not improved by restricting dietary lysine or energy density. However, crude protein digestibility was decreased (p<0.05) as dietary lysine was restricted. When dietary lysine was restricted, fecal nitrogen was increased whereas nitrogen retention was decreased. BUN concentration was affected by dietary lysine restriction; treatments ELL and EELL had higher BUN values than other treatments (p<0.01). Carcass characteristics and meat quality were measured when average body weight of pigs reached $107.83{\pm}1.50\;kg$. Treatment ELL had higher last rib backfat depth (p<0.05) than treatment CON, but ELL and EEL did not differ significantly. The ELL and EEL treatments had higher (p<0.05) subjective marbling score than treatment CON. Treatment EEL showed higher longissimus fat content than treatment EL and CON (p<0.01). The results indicated that finishing pigs fed a diet with 15% lysine restriction and 3.465 Mcal of ME/kg energy density had no detrimental effects on growth performance and N utilization, and could achieve substantial increases in marbling and longissimus fat content of pork.

• Asian-Australasian Journal of Animal Sciences
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• v.23 no.8
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• pp.1034-1042
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• 2010

This study aimed to determine the optimum dietary crude protein level in a typical diet for fattening pigs fed ad libitum under normal climate conditions in Central Vietnam. One hundred and ninety two gilts of Mong Cai local breed (MC), $F_1$ Large White${\times}$Mong Cai and $F_2$ crossbreds of (Landrace${\times}$Mong Cai)${\times}$Large White were used. At the start of the experiment, Mong Cai pigs weighed 12 kg at 11 weeks of age, $F_1$ pigs 12.1 kg at 8 weeks of age and $F_2$ pigs 12.2 kg at 8 weeks of age. Four diets differing in crude protein (CP) content (10.1, 13.1, 16.1 and 18.9% in DM) were formulated from rice bran, corn meal, cassava meal and fish meal. Calculated digestible energy content of the diets ranged from 13.5 to 13.8 MJ per kg DM. Pigs were housed individually in pens of $2.5\;m^2$ each and had ad libitum access to feed in a trough as well as water in bowls. The final weights after a growing period of 150 days were 66, 86 and 96 kg for MC, $F_1$ and $F_2$, respectively. Feed intake of MC pigs was highest at 13.1% CP while $F_1$ and $F_2$ had the highest feed intake at 16.1% CP. The results showed that for MC the maximum gain was obtained at levels between 13 to 16% CP. For the $F_1$ the maximum gain was at dietary protein levels of 16-17%. For $F_2$ the max gain was obtained at CP levels of 16 to 18%. Feed conversion was highest in MC pigs (~4.0) followed by $F_1$ (~3.3) and $F_2$ (~3.1), and within genotypes was lowest at the optimum CP level (p<0.05). Back fat thickness in MC (33.1 mm), $F_1$ (23.0 mm) and $F_2$ (20.5 mm) pigs was different and within genotypes was the lowest at intermediate CP levels. In conclusion, increasing the dietary crude protein contents in practical diets for pigs in Vietnam can increase production on small holder farms. Optimal performance for MC, $F_1$ and $F_2$ pigs is achieved at different dietary crude protein contents.

• Asian-Australasian Journal of Animal Sciences
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• v.21 no.2
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• pp.232-236
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• 2008

This experiment was performed to investigate the effects of two energy levels and four lysine:digestible energy (DE) ratios on the apparent digestibility of nutrients in finishing pigs. The experiment was conducted using a $2{\times}4$ randomized complete block (RCB) design with three replicates. Twenty-four cross-bred finishing barrows ((Landrace${\times}$Yorkshire)${\times}$Duroc) with an average body weight of $64.2{\pm}0.69kg$ were assigned to one of eight treatments. Each barrow was placed in an individual metabolism crate and dietary treatment and water was provided ad libitum. Diets were designed to contain lysine:ME ratios of 1.5, 1.8, 2.1 and 2.4 g/Mcal at 3.35 and 3.6 Mcal/kg of diet in a $4{\times}2$ factorial arrangement. Dry matter (DM), ash, Ca and P digestibility were not affected by energy density or lysine:DE ratios. Crude fat digestibility increased as the energy density increased from 3.35 to 3.6 Mcal of DE/kg. Increasing the lysine:DE ratio also increased crude protein digestibility. There were no interactions between energy density and lysine:DE ratio in terms of nutrient digestibility. Nitrogen excretion via feces was not affected by energy density and lysine:DE ratio, while nitrogen excretion via urine was significantly affected by energy density and lysine:DE ratio. The apparent digestibility of all amino acids except for isoluecine, arginine and aspartic acid as well as average values of essential amino (EAA), non-essential amino acids (NEAA) and total amino acid digestibility (p>0.05) were not affected by energy density. The apparent digestibility of all amino acids except for leucine, proline, alanine and tyrosine, NEAA and total amino acid digestibility were significantly affected by lysine: DE ratio (p<0.05). Interactive effects of energy and lysine:DE ratio also significantly affected amino acid digestibility except for isoleucine, alanine, cystine, leucine, phenylalanine, glutamine and proline (p<0.05). In conclusion, these results suggest that maintaining the appropriate lysine:DE ratio becomes more important as the energy density of the diet increases. Consequently, increasing the lysine:DE ratio can result in increased crude protein digestibility and urinary nitrogen excretion, although apparent protein digestibility and nitrogen excretion were not affected by energy density Furthermore, increasing the lysine:DE ratio also increased the apparent digestibility of essential amino acids, except for leucine, regardless of energy density. The optimum lysine:DE ratio for maximum essential amino acid digestibility of the $64.2{\pm}0.69kg$ pig is approximately 2.4 g of lysine/Mcal of DE.

• Asian-Australasian Journal of Animal Sciences
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• v.22 no.3
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• pp.313-318
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• 2009

TIAF1 is a TGF-${\beta}$1-induced anti-apoptotic factor that plays a critical role in blocking TNF (tumor necrosis factor) cytotoxicity in mouse fibroblasts and participates in TGF-${\beta}$-mediated growth regulation. In this study, we obtained the full-length cDNA sequence of the porcine TIAF1 gene. Real-time PCR further revealed that the TIAF1 gene was expressed at the highest level in liver and kidney with prominent expressions detected in uterus, and lower levels detected in heart, spleen, lung, stomach, small intestine, skeletal muscle and fat of Large White pigs. Sequence analysis indicated that a 6 base-pair deletion mutation existed in the exon of the TIAF1 gene between Meishan and Large White pigs. This mutation induced deletion of Gln and Val amino acids. PCR-RFLP was used to detect the polymorphism in 394 pigs of a "Large White${\times}$Meishan" $F_{2}$ resource population and four purebred pig populations. The frequencies of the A allele (with a 6 bp deletion) were dominant in Chinese Meishan and Bamei pigs, and the frequencies of the B allele (no 6 bp deletion) were dominant in Large White and Landrace pigs. Association analyses revealed that the deletion mutation had highly significant associations (p<0.01) with meat marbling score of the thorax-waist longissimus dorsi (LD) muscle (MM1) and intramuscular fat percentage (IMF), and significant associations (p<0.05) with carcass length (CL). The results presented here supply evidence that the 6 bp deletion mutation in the TIAF1 gene affects porcine meat quality and provides useful information for further porcine breeding.

• Asian-Australasian Journal of Animal Sciences
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• v.24 no.10
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• pp.1456-1463
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• 2011

A total of 629 Duroc${\times}$Landrace${\times}$Large White crossbred pigs were utilized in three experiments (Exp. 1, 222 pigs weighing $25.6{\pm}2.0\;kg$ BW; Exp. 2, 216 pigs weighing 5$6.2{\pm}4.3\;kg$ BW; Exp. 3, 191 pigs weighing $86.4{\pm}4.6\;kg$ BW) conducted to determine the effects of fermented potato pulp on performance, nutrient digestibility, carcass traits and plasma parameters in growingfinishing pigs. Each experiment lasted 28 d. The pigs were assigned to one of two corn-soybean meal-based diets containing 0 or 5% fermented potato pulp. The inclusion of fermented potato pulp increased weight gain (p<0.05) in experiments 1 and 2 and increased feed intake (p<0.05) in experiment 2. Feed conversion was improved (p<0.05) in experiment 2 and showed a tendency to improve (p<0.10) in experiments 1 and 3 when pigs were fed fermented potato pulp. Fermented potato pulp increased (p<0.05) dry matter digestibility in experiments 1 and 3 and energy digestibility in experiment 2. Feeding fermented potato pulp decreased plasma urea nitrogen (p<0.05) and alanine aminotransferase (p<0.05) in experiments 1 and 2, while plasma aspartate aminotransferase was decreased (p<0.05) in experiment 3. Dietary fermented potato pulp did not affect the carcass characteristics of finishing pigs. Feeding fermented potato pulp reduced (p<0.05) fecal ammonia concentration in all three experiments. In conclusion, feeding growing-finishing pigs diets containing 5% fermented potato pulp improved weight gain and feed conversion without any detrimental effects on carcass traits. The improvements in pig performance appeared to be mediated by improvements in nutrient digestibility.

• Asian-Australasian Journal of Animal Sciences
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• v.33 no.2
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• pp.187-196
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• 2020

Objective: Porcine respiratory disease is one of the most important health problems causing significant economic losses. To understand the genetic basis for susceptibility to swine enzootic pneumonia (EP) in pigs, we detected 102,809 single nucleotide polymorphisms in a total of 249 individuals based on genome-wide sequencing data. Methods: Genome comparison of susceptibility to swine EP in three pig breeds (Jinhua, Erhualian, and Meishan) with two western lines that are considered more resistant (Duroc and Landrace) using cross-population extended haplotype homozygosity and F-statistic (F_ST) statistical approaches identified 691 positively selected genes. Based on quantitative trait loci, gene ontology terms and literature search, we selected 14 candidate genes that have convincible biological functions associated with swine EP or human asthma. Results: Most of these genes were tested by several methods including transcription analysis and candidate genes association study. Among these genes: cytochrome P450 1A1 and catenin beta 1 (CTNNB1) are involved in fertility; transforming growth factor beta receptor 3 plays a role in meat quality traits; Wnt family member 2, CTNNB1 and transcription factor 7 take part in adipogenesis and fat deposition simultaneously; plasminogen activator, urokinase receptor (completely linked to AXL receptor tyrosine kinase, r² = 1) plays an essential role in the successful ovulation of matured oocytes in pigs; colipase like 2 (strongly linked to SAM pointed domain containing ETS transcription factor, r² = 0.848) is involved in male fertility. Conclusion: These adverse genes susceptible to swine EP may be selected while selecting for economic traits (especially reproduction traits) due to pleiotropic and hitchhiking effect of linked genes. Our study provided a completely new point of view to understand the genetic basis for susceptibility or resistance to swine EP in pigs thereby, provides insight for designing sustainable breed selection programs. Finally, the candidate genes are crucial due to their potential roles in respiratory diseases in a large number of species, including human.

• Asian-Australasian Journal of Animal Sciences
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• v.13 no.12
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• pp.1731-1737
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• 2000

This study was conducted to investigate the effects of threonine:lysine ratios on growth performance, apparent nutrient digestibility and blood urea nitrogen (BUN) concentration, and to estimate the optimal threonine:lysine ratios for growing barrows and gilts. A total of 150 pigs (Landrace${\times}$Yorkshire${\times}$Duroc, $16.75{\pm}0.42kg$ average body weight, 75 barrows and 75 gilts) was randomly allotted into six treatments in a $2{\times}3$ factorial design. Six diets were formulated to contain 1.12% lysine for barrows and 1.33% lysine for gilts with three threonine:lysine ratios (50, 60 and 70%) for both barrows and gilts. Throughout the whole experimental period (16 to 56 kg body weight), there was no interaction between sex and dietary threonine:lysine ratio in average daily gain (ADG), average daily feed intake (ADFI) and feed conversion rate (FCR). Between sexes, there was a clear sex-effect showing better growth performance of barrows. Barrows consumed more feed (p<0.01) and grew faster (p<0.01) than gilts. For barrows, there was a trend to improved ADG and FCR with increasing threonine:lysine ratio. For gilts, there was a trend to improved ADG and FCR up to threonine:lysine ratio of 60%, but not significant. There was no interaction between sex and threonine:lysine ratio in nutrient digestibilities of growing pigs except for crude ash (CA). Between sexes, there were differences in nutrient digestibilities, except for calcium for which gilts showed higher a digestibility (p<0.01). Among dietary threonine:lysine ratios, there were no differences in nutrient digestibilities. Mean values of essential amino acids (EAA), non-essential amino acids (NEAA) and total amino acids (TAA) digestibilities were not affected by sex and dietary threonine:lysine ratio. There was no evidence of an interaction between sexes and dietary threonine:lysine ratio. Between sexes, total BUN concentration was lower in gilts than barrows (p<0.05). It was concluded that a 70 and 60% dietary threonine:lysine ratio for barrows (1.12% lysine) and gilts (1.33% lysine) tended to result in better growth performances and nutrient utilization and lower BUN concentration than other threonine:lysine ratios.

• Journal of Animal Environmental Science
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• v.15 no.3
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• pp.241-250
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• 2009

This study was conducted to develop an prototype automatic feeder (AF) for growing-finishing pigs. The main components of AF were a feed storage hopper, a feeding motor, a feed agitator, a control box and a programmable IC, which were controlled by a personal computer. The powder type feed transfer rate of AF was average $9.83{\pm}0.4\;g\;s^{-1}$. In feeding test, growing pigs (Landrace) of about 43 kg live weight were used in the study, and was fed over a 6 weeks in pens with solid concrete floors. For feeding trials with AF, the operation time of the feeding motor was set to 2, 3, 4, 5, and 6 seconds per feeding. Pigs frequently used AF from 05:00 to 11:00 and from 11:00 to 17:00 without relationship to the operation time of the feeding motor. The AF operation time of the feeding motor to minimize feed loss was between 2 and 4 seconds. Pigs fed with AF had same or slightly higher average daily gam (0.8~0.9 kg) than that with a commercial feeder, and average daily feed intake (2.76~2.93 kg) and feed conversion ratio (3.10~3.66) of pigs fed with AF were same or lower than those with the commercial feeder except the operation time of the feeding motor set to 6 seconds. As a result, AF would help to use and improve the productivity of growing-finishing pigs.