• Korean Journal of Heritage: History & Science
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• v.46 no.3
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• pp.16-31
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• 2013

This study addresses how the main group of community ritual changed as the regional community changed during the period of Japan's colonial rule of Korea with emphasis on Gwanseongmyo in Jangchung-dong, Seoul. First, almost every regional community was changed because of city planning which was carried out by Japan in Korea for colonial exploitation and for the use of military bases. Mapo-dong and Seobinggo-dong were the appropriate examples. The city planning projects by the Japanese colonial government selected Jangchung-dong as the place of settlement of many Japanese people. The stream, Cheonggyecheon, made a border between the Korean and Japanese settlements and the traditional system of regional community in Jangchung-dong was changed and reorganized considerably. Second, the Japanese government used the rituals of regional community purposefully to combine them with the ceremony in the Japanese shrine. Those who supported Japan performed the regional rituals and tried to follow the policy of 'Rule of Culture' required by the Japanese colonial government. However, most regional rituals continued as they were before Japan's colonial rule of Korea without any change. Under this new trend the ritual of Gwanseongmyo was changed from the ritual for worshipping Guan Yu to that of the regional community. Last, the main groups that led the rituals of regional community were diversified during the period of Japan's colonial rule of Korea. In other words, the rituals of community used to be led by the families that lived in the region for generations before Japan's colonial rule of Korea. However, they were later led by various groups that emerged as a result of the colonial rule, urbanization, commercial development, regional differentiation, and so on. As an example,Yeongsinsa of Gwanseongmyo,which was the main group to lead the ritual of Gwanseongmyo, shows that the regional community rituals were extended to worshipping Guan Yu. The members of the main group to lead the ritual were pro-Japanese senior officials who were formerly military officers. This shows that the main groups leading the regional community rituals were further diversified.

• The Korean Journal of Archival Studies
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• no.45
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• pp.51-82
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• 2015

Maeul-making, which is to restore inherent characteristics of maeul as a living community has been proceeded by local communities themselves since the 1990s when political democracy and local government in Korean society has been progressed in full-scale. Although New Maeul Movement has been done in the 1970s before and after, it is different from maeul-making because it was focused mainly on improving physical environments of rural communities and initiated by government. The development of maeul community archives in Korea has been related closely to such a maeul-making since the 1990s. Maeul-based community archives, maeul community archives had been begun to build as part of maeul-making and grass-root movement by the 2000s. Initiated by self-motivated communities, maeul community archives were carried out through cooperations between civic activists and residents in maeul communities and voluntary professional archivists from outside. Although records about the maeul community has been collected by mainstream cultural institutions such as public archives, museum, local historical association, and local cultural center, it was at this time to collect records of the maeul community by self-motivated local residents. This tendency of 'independent' maeul community archives, however, is currently entering upon a new phase with the city of Seoul's project (2012) to support making a maeul community, that is, the governance phase based on private-government partnership. At this point of time, it is important for maeul community archives to be built on privately-led governance model that guarantees their autonomy and at the same time bring government's knowhow and supports into them, as opposed to the way captured or driven unilaterally by government. This article explores the growth of maeul community archives and collections in Korean society through a range of self-motivated bodies; the interaction with government; and as a result of those interactions, the creation of maeul community archives based on governance. To introduce and explicate the motivations behind maeul archiving endeavors, this article will first sketch something of the historical, social, and political context in which 'maeul' communities have arisen, collapsed, and restored. It will then examine in more detail some specific examples of maeul community archives as grass-root movement of maeul community. The third section will attempt to identify the governance model of maeul community archives under the auspices of the city of Seoul and its limitations. Finally through these activities, it will suggest the ways in which maeul community archives commit themselves to their duty of grass-root movement of community and at the same time, secure sustainability, that is, concrete ways of privately initiated governance model.

• Korean Journal of Heritage: History & Science
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• v.53 no.1
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• pp.184-203
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• 2020

The Confucian ruling class of the Joseon Dynasty regarded Buddhist rituals as "dangerous festivals." However, these Buddhist ceremonies facilitated transitions between phases of life from birth till death and strengthened communal unity through their joint practice of the rites. Ritual spaces were decorated with various utensils and objects that transformed them into wondrous arenas. Of these ornaments, Buddhist paintings served as the most effective visual medium for educating the common people. As an example, a painting of the Ten Kings of the Underworld (siwangdo) could be hung as a means to illustrate the Buddhist view of the afterlife, embedded in images not only inside a Buddhist temple hall, but in any space where a Buddhist ritual was being held. Demand for Buddhist paintings rose considerably with their use in ritual spaces. Nectar ritual paintings (gamnodo), including scenes of appeasement rites for the souls of the deceased, emphasized depictions of royal family members and their royal relatives. In Chinese paintings of the water and land ceremony (suryukjae), these figures referred to one of several sacred groups who invited deities to a ritual. However, in Korean paintings of a nectar ritual, the iconography symbolized the patronage of the royal court and underlined the historicity and tradition of nationally conducted water and land ceremonies. This royal patronage implied the social and governmental sanction of Buddhist rituals. By including depictions of royal family members and their royal relatives, Joseon Buddhist paintings highlighted this approval. The Joseon ruling class outwardly feared that Buddhist rituals might undermine observance of Confucian proprieties and lead to a corruption of public morals, since monks and laymen, men and women, and people of all ranks mingled within the ritual spaces. The concern of the ruling class was also closely related to the nature of festivals, which involved deviation from the routines of daily life and violation of taboos. Since visual media such as paintings were considered to hold a special power, some members of the ruling class attempted to exploit this power, while others were apprehensive of the risks they entailed. According to Joseon wangjo sillok (The Annals of the Joseon Dynasty), the Joseon royal court burned Buddhist paintings and ordered the arrest of those who created them, while emphasizing their dangers. It further announced that so many citizens were gathering in Buddhist ritual spaces that the capital city was being left vacant. However, this record also paradoxically suggests that Buddhist rituals were widely considered festivals that people should participate in. Buddhist rituals could not be easily suppressed since they performed important religious functions reflecting the phases of the human life cycle, and had no available Confucian replacements. Their festive nature, unifying communities, expanded significantly at the time. The nectar ritual paintings of the late Joseon period realistically delineated nectar rituals and depicted the troops of traveling actors and performers that began to emerge during the seventeenth century. Such Buddhist rituals for consoling souls who encountered an unfortunate death were held annually and evolved into festivals during which the Joseon people relieved their everyday fatigue and refreshed themselves. The process of adopting Buddhist rituals-regarded as "dangerous festivals" due to political suppression of Buddhism in the Confucian nation-as seasonal customs and communal feasts is well reflected in the changes made in Buddhist paintings.

• Korean Journal of Ecology and Environment
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• v.38 no.1 s.110
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• pp.73-82
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• 2005

This study was conducted, based on the field survey and laboratory observations, to elucidate egg developmental processes and their characteristics of the Korean slender gudgeon, Squalidus gracilis majimae. For the experiments, the mature adults were collected at the Woongcheon-Cheon Stream and Boreung Reservoir located in Boreung City, Chungnam Province and eggs were obtained from the natural spawning area. Morphological characteristics of the egg and embryonic development were summarized as follows: The shape of the fertilized egg was spherical, adhesive and transparent. The fertilized egg was 2.9${\pm}$0.3 mm (n = 30) in mean diameter under water temperature of $26{\pm}1.5^{\circ}C$, light white in color and had no oil droplets. After 20 minutes from the time of fertilization, a blastodisc was formed and divided into two cells at 48 minutes after fertilization. The blastular stage occurred at 5 hours 40 minutes after fertilization and the gastrular stage was detected at 8 hours 41 minutes after fertilization. The beginning of embryo formation was observed at 12 hours 58 minutes after fertilization and optic vesicles and 9 somites were discovered at 17 hours 05 minutes after fertilization. Differentiation of brains and embryo wiggling were observed at 37 hours 27 minutes after fertilization. Heart beating and the formation of melanophores in optic vesicles were detected at 44 hours 46 minutes after fertilization. The formation of pectoral fins and melanophores in the body were discovered at 50 hours 36 minutes after fertilization. Hatching occurred at 57 hours 49 minutes after fertilization. The newly hatched larvae were 3.3${\pm}$0.2 mm (n = 120) in total length. We believe that these results may contribute the species and population conservations under the situation of accelerated water pollution and the decreases of its diversity.

• Korean Journal of Heritage: History & Science
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• v.52 no.4
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• pp.206-225
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• 2019

This paper examines the trade and development aspects of glass mirrors through the literature records of the Joseon Dynasty, and studies the characteristics of existing glass mirror crafts by referring to the terms and types shown in the literature. The glass mirror in the records had called western mirrors(西洋鏡, 洋鏡), glass mirrors(玻璃鏡, 玻瓈鏡), stone mirrors(石鏡), etc. Glass mirrors were imported mainly through trade with Russia and the Qing Dynasty since the 17th century and were banned from importation in the late Joseon Dynasty. These mirrors were something new that caused a great stirring in Joseon society in the 18th century, and in the 19th century, it grew larger as a commodity needed for everyday life, especially with trade with Japan. At that time, glass mirrors were used for various purposes, such as installing large glass at a store, which were not the standard mirror usage of confirming one's appearance. These mirrors surprised Koreans in Joseon who experienced them at Yanjing Liulichang(燕京 琉璃廠) in the 18th and 19th centuries. As a result, the demand for glass mirrors rapidly increased and quickly surpassed that of bronze mirrors. Consequentially, new crafts using glass mirrors instead of bronze mirrors in Joseon began to be produced and used after the 18th century. In particular, integrated flat boards of glass mirrors were developed as crafts used indoors. It was convenient to use the hair comb box, a long-time presence in Joseon society, with the bronze mirror. This kind of mirror remained apparent in various genre paintings, including the Taepyeong Seongsido(太平城市圖, 'A Thriving City in a Peaceful Era') collected the National Museum of Korea which reflect its populism of the times. Also, the Mirror Stand(鏡臺) used in the Qing Period was produced in Joseon, but there was a difference in the way of making the drawers and box shapes between two nations. On the other hand, the Face Mirror(面鏡) was made to look at the face. Various crafts made with the aesthetic sense of Joseon, such as the ox horn inlaying craft technique, were produced with auspicious designs. In the 19th century, glass mirrors were imported from European countries, such as France, Denmark, the Netherlands, and the United Kingdom, however after the end of the 19th century Japanese crafts were popular. Glass mirrors, which were popular in the Meiji and Taisho eras of Japan, were imported and also the Mirror Screen(鏡屛) using large glass mirrors were used. In particular, the mirror screen had developed wood furniture since the previous time, which were used for banquets and large spaces, such as the drawing room, and were imported from China and Japan. In addition, the western architectural effect of attaching a mirror to the wall was also attempted to adjust the brightness of the space and introduce another image and scenery in the mirror. This was done at Deoksugung Palace's Seokjojeon.

• KOMUNHWA
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• no.70
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• pp.133-161
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• 2007

It is judged that celadons with '○' pattern and '⊙' pattern have the indication of manufacturer by engraving mark at the internal center of the bottom. These celadons were produced at No.8.23.27 kiln sites located at Sadang-ri(사당리), Daegu-myon(대구면), Gangjin-gun(강진군), Jeollanamdo(전라남도), Korea and '⊙’ patterned celadon porcelain was found only at No. 23 and 27 kiln sites, so it is assumed that its production sites were limited. Kinds of celadons included bowl, dish, cup, bottle, case and vessel for emptied wine and there were a lot of dishes with a variety of patterns. These celadons were engraved by molded design technique using the same ceramic design as the pattern of celadons in the period of their prosperity and it was appropriate method to produce celadons of a good quality with production method to keep decorative design like pattern or size uniformly. It was also found that inlay method was not universalized in this period and similar celadons were produced with molded design in large quantities. These celadons had partially fire clay temper, but most of them were burnt by supporting the inner bottom of U-type base with quartzite after whole glazing. It was known through relics excavated at Seokreung(석릉) royal tomb of King Heejong(희종) at Ganghwa(강화) and Hyeeumwon(혜음원) temple site at Paju(파주) and military house at Wakamiyaoji(약궁대로) avenue Kamakura(겸창)-city, Japan(일본) that these celadons were manufactured at two quarters of the 13th century centering around 1230s. Therefore, these celadons will be significant materials to fill the gap of the celadons in the 13th century resulted from the record chronologically that green celadons were manufactured in the 12th century. And this period was invaded by Mongolia(몽고), but central control was achieved and green celadons were continuously produced. It was also considered that these celadons were excavated at Gabgot-ri(갑곶리) and Gwanchung-ri(관청리), Ganghwa(강화), Hyeeumwon temple, Paju which played the role of temporary palace, Bu1guksa(불국사) temple at Gyeongju(경주), Silsangsa(실상사) temple at Namwon(남원) and relics of Jangheung(장흥) adjacent to Daeguso(대구소) and these were produced for high class.

• Korean Journal of Heritage: History & Science
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• v.53 no.2
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• pp.270-285
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• 2020

This study examines the state of archeological research on Silla and Unified Silla conducted in North Korea and identifies its characteristics. In South Korea, most research has focused on prehistoric times in North Korea, and little research has been done on Silla and Unified Silla. Noting this, we attempted to examine the history of archaeological research in North Korea to provide foundations upon which to go forward. The research was examined in terms of general archaeological themes including tombs, fortresses, the capital city, earthenware, roof tiles, ornaments, weapons, and horse harnesses, and we identified four characteristics from the examination. First, Juche ideology had a great influence on interpretation of the unification of the three kingdoms. The Juche ideology was first proposed in 1955, and at the time, it was not fully established as an ideology but rather seen as constituting opposition to toadyism. Accordingly, the unification of the three kingdoms led by Silla was seen as amounting to collusion with foreign forces and was not acknowledged. A piece of evidence shows that this change took place around 1962. Second, an inclination to testify to the 'uniqueness' of the cultures of the three kingdoms is observed. The argument is that culture in the Korean peninsula has unique characteristics that set it apart from Chinese culture, and that the cultures of the three kingdoms share much in common. This inclination was not mentioned in research until the 1950s, and it can be seen as an effort to comply with Juche ideology and prove the principle of unity as stated in the national leader's instructions in the 1960s. Third, the influence of Goguryeo on the formation of Silla culture is emphasized. Related research explains that Baekje, Silla, and Gaya adopted the 'superior' culture of Goguryeo, and could establish 'uniqueness' of culture accordingly. It is claimed that an advanced Goguryeo culture was disseminated throughout Balhae and Unified Silla, and then to Goryeo, resulting in a true unification of the ethnic culture. Fourth, researchers in North Korea presume the Silla tombs and other relics to be far older than South Korean researchers' estimate. From a standpoint of highlighting the long history of Korea, they estimate the Silla Dynasty was founded in the early or mid-first century. Accordingly, archeological evidence that demonstrates the establishment of the state is dated as far back. Such an estimate is also indispensable in justifying the explanation that the chamber tombs of Goguryeo had a direct influence on Silla. These research characteristics which arose during the 1960s continue to be basic guidelines for North Korean researchers.

• Korean Journal of Heritage: History & Science
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• v.45 no.3
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• pp.80-99
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• 2012

It is known that there are two Gabong taesil (shrine for King's umbilical cord) of King Danjong, the 6th king of Joseon, remaining today. One of them is Mt. Sogok in Sacheon-city, Gyeongsangnam-do and the other is Mt. Beomnim in Seongju-gun, Gyeongsangbuk-do. The academic sector argued about this matter as there cannot be two Gabong taesil for one king. I once argued that Taesil on Mt. Beomnim in Seongju is King Danjong's Gabong taesil and Danjong taesil in Sacheon is the one for Prince Inseongdaegun, the eldest son of King Yejong. At that time, however, I had not examined the archaeological relics found in these places. In result of making an archaeological approach, I have come to the following conclusions :1. King Danjong had two Taesil : Agi taesil(shrine for baby's umbilical cord) and Gabong taesil. The first Agi taesil was created on Taebong of Mt. Seonseok in Seongju on November 26, 1441, but was moved to Mt. Beomnim in Seongju in 1451 to form the second Agi taesil. In 1458, King Sejo eliminated his Taesil. The stone structures of Gabong taesil still remains on Taebong of Mt. Beomnim, so it has been assumed that King Danjong established them during his reign (1452-1455). 2. Taesil in Sacheon has been known as King Danjong's Taesil because of King Danjong's reinstatement during the reign of King Sukjong. His Taesil was repaired with the reinstatement and King Sukjong was mistaken that Taesil in Sacheon was King Danjong's Taesil to fix it. The time of restoration has been assumed to be soon after the restoration of King Danjong's tomb (1699-1719). Taesil is missing the book of records and rails around the stone structure because the tombs of reinstated kings were restored without rails. 3. It is incorrect that Taesil in Sacheon was known as King Danjong's Taesil, It has been concluded that this Taesil was for Prince Inseongdaegun who was born in 1462. I focused on the fact that Prince Inseongdaegun's Taesil was in Seosamneung Taesil instead of King Danjong's Taesil. When Yiwangjik stored King Danjong's Taesil in Seoul in 1928 and moved it to Seosamneung in 1930, he found that the epitaph on the tombstone recorded that it was Prince Inseongdaegun, not King Danjong, and created Prince Inseongdaegun's Taesil in Seosamneung. I referred to "Taebong", which was created when Seosamneung Taesil was built during the Japanese imperial rule over Joseon, and the relics found in Taesil in Sacheon and Seosamneung.

• Korean Journal of Heritage: History & Science
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• v.42 no.3
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• pp.26-47
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• 2009

This study examined dwelling site from among the sites of the Neolithic age found in the Asan Bay(牙山灣) area, and the temporal-spatial location and meaning of the dwelling site (settlement). The majority of the settlements in the area are of a square style but some coexist with rectangular-style settlements, which is noteworthy. The dwelling sites of the Neolithic age found in Asan Bay area are mostly located in a ridge of hilly areas, divided into gentle, low areas (20~50 meters above sea level) and relatively high areas (50~80 meters above the sea level). Although location strongly corresponded to the residents' subsistence and the technical levels within the culture, it likely was greatly affected by natural environment where they lived, as well. In examining radiocarbon dating results and the excavated artifacts, the settlements found in Asan Bay were determined to belong to the period II(3,500~3,000 B.C.) stated in the Relative Chronological table of Dwelling sites in the Neolithic age, written by the author. Said Dwelling sites are proven to have a close relationship with those found on the coast of Gyeonggi Province(京畿道) and in the Geum River(錦江) valley. This is deemed to be the result of expansion and interchange between Gyeonggi Province(京畿道) group and Geum River(錦江) valley group, who constituted the large settlements. Additionally, the Daecheon-ri type dwelling sites in the Geum River valley were verified to be the result of exchange, and spread to the Asan Bay area in the same era. Two forms of Dwelling sites coexisted dynamically in the Asan Bay area around 3,500 B.C. Such a phenomenon resulted primarily from the expansion of the dwelling site due to the introduction of primitive agriculture, as well as environmental (temperature), biological and social changes at those times.

• Korean Journal of Heritage: History & Science
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• v.55 no.1
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• pp.51-61
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• 2022

Earthenware horn cups with horse head decorations were excavated from Tomb No. 7 of Bokcheon-dong, Dongraegu, Busan Metropolitan City. Made of earth in the shape of a horn, these cups are considered to have been used to drink alcohol or beverage. Large numbers of earthenware horn cups of various shapes were excavated from tombs located in the old territories of Silla and Gaya. A pair of earthenware horn cups were excavated from Tomb No. 7, and the two cups are almost identical in overall shapes and manufacturing techniques despite different sizes. Conservation treatment was carried out for the bigger one of the two horn cups this time. There are two cracks toward the horse head decorations around the mouth with missing parts observed. The chest of the horse touches the ground with one side decorating the horse head and the other side facing the conical mouth of the horn cup. It is in the U shape, striking a balance based on two legs attached behind. The surface of the horn cup was made with a potter's wheel, and the connection to the horse head has traces of cutting and trimming. The horse head is expressed realistically with its features including the ears, eyes, nose, and mouth well apprehended and its color is grey This study intended to investigate manufacturing techniques of the artifact by examining its internal structure through the condition survey in a non-destructive way. CT imaging was used to figure out its manufacturing techniques and to diagnose its condition, and accordingly the scientific conservation treatment was conducted to stabilize the artifact. The precise diagnosis on conservation condition found that there are two chips in the spout with their cracks extended. One of the chips is connected with separation added to the crack. The material which has been used for connection in the past was collected for the infrared spectroscopic analysis, which was identified to be nitrocellulose resin for the connection. Therefore, this conservation treatment focused on removing the old material and preventing the spread of cracks. Before conservation treatment, the condition survey and scientific examination for the artifact were carried out to secure data about the earthenware horn cup with horse head decorations(Treasure). Based on them, effective plans for its conservation treatment was sought for and then existing adhesive was safely removed, and restoration material was selected to take into account its reversibility. In addition, the conservation treatment according to optimal methodologies was conducted through the consultation meeting with experts.