• Nutrition Research and Practice
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• v.16 no.sup1
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• pp.126-133
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• 2022

Choline is a water-soluble organic compound that is important for the normal functioning of the body. It is an essential dietary component as de novo synthesis by the human body is insufficient. Since the United States set the Adequate Intakes (AIs) for total choline as dietary reference values in 1998, Australia, China, and the European Union have also established the choline AIs. Although choline is clearly essential to life, the 2020 Dietary Reference Intakes for Koreans (KDRIs) has not established the values because very few studies have been done on choline intake in Koreans. Since choline intake levels differ by race and country, human studies on Koreans are essential to set KDRIs. Therefore, the present study was undertaken to provide basic data for developing choline KDRIs in the future by analyzing data on choline intake in Koreans to date and reference values of choline intake and dietary choline intake status by country and race.

• Journal of Nutrition and Health
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• v.38 no.4
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• pp.320-326
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• 2005

This study was conducted to estimate dietary choline intake of Koreans according to gender, age and region by using the data on per capita food intake in 1998 and 2001 and the data on choline contents of foods customarily eaten by Koreans. Sixty-four and 97 kinds of food items were used for the estimation of choline intake in 1998 and 2001, respectively. And these corresponded to approximately $90\%$ of the total amount of food intake and energy intake. Based on these food items and choline content, per capita choline intake of Koreans was estimated to be 623.0 mg and 602.4 mg in 1998 and 2001 respectively , 687.2 mg and 659.1 mg in 1998 and 2001 for male, 560.2 mg and 551.0 mg in 1998 and 2001 for female. While the number of foods considered in estimation was higher in 2001 than 1998, choline intake was lower in 2001. The estimated per capita choline intake of male population was higher than that of female population by 108-127 mg, possibly due to the difference in total amount of food intake. The age group with the highest choline intake was different between 2 time points. Although adolescents of 13- 19 years showed the highest intake (712.0 mg) in 1998, mid-aged adults of 30-49 years showed the highest choline intake (662.2 mg) followed by adolescents (645.7 mg) in 2001. In regional comparison, choline intake of the rural population (588.7 mg and 588.3 mg in 1998 and 2001 respectively) was lower than that of population in small to medium-size cities (625.1 mg and 603.9 mg) or in metropolitan cities (637.7 mg and 602.8 mg). This result revealed that per capita choline intake of the Korean population falls within the adequate range with some differences by age, sex and residing area.

• Journal of Nutrition and Health
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• v.37 no.1
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• pp.61-67
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• 2004

This study was conducted to investigate the choline intake of Korean adults for the purpose of preparing a basal data required for the establishment of choline adequate intake (AI). The subjects of 56 Korean young adults were recruited from college students of 20 to 30 years old in Daejeon city. The aliquots of foods that the subjects ate for one day were collected with use of duplicate food collection method and choline content of one day meal directly was analyzed with the use of enzymatic method. Choline intakes of male subjects were in the range of 353.5∼1222.5 mg and those of female subjects were in the range of 213.1 ∼ 722.3 mg. Mean intakes of choline were 658.2 $\pm$ 243.9 mg/day in male subjects and 423.3 $\pm$ 133.6 mg/day in female, therefore choline intake of men was about 200mg higher than that of women. Median value in total subjects was 496 mg, male's median was 608.8 mg, female's median was 419.9 mg. When the subjects were devided into 4 groups by choline intake, as less than 75%, 75∼100%, 100∼125% and over 125% based on choline AI of USA (males: 550 mg, females: 425 mg), there was no significant difference between men (64.3%) and wemen (67.9%) in the distribution of the subjects whose choline intake is under the range of 75∼125% AI of USA. However, 10.7% of men and 21.4% of female had choline intake less than 75% AI of USA while the cases of choline intake higher than 125% AI were 25% in male and 10.7% in female. Thus, it is assumed that female case in choline-deficient state would be two times more than male. When adjusted by body weight, choline intake was 9.5 $\pm$ 3.4 mg/kg in men,8.1 $\pm$ 3.1 mg/kg in women and 8.8 $\pm$ 3,3 mg/kg in total subjects. And choline intake per 1,000 kcal of men, women and total subjects were 277.1 $\pm$ 78.4 mg, 275.9 $\pm$ 62.1 mg and 276.5 $\pm$ 70.1 mg respectively. From these results, it is suggested that these levels of 276.5 $\pm$ 70.1 mg/ 1,000 kcal or 8.8 $\pm$ 3.3 mg/kg B.W. can be used as a reference value for the establishment of AI of choline for Korean, because overall choline intake of these subjects was not in lower state compared to other nutrients intakes obtained from calculation of the food the subjects had taken.

• Journal of Nutrition and Health
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• v.39 no.2
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• pp.115-120
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• 2006

The purpose of this study is to investigate the concentration of plasma choline of Korean and to clarify the relationship between plasma choline concentration and choline intake. Plasma choline concentration of 30 young adults (15 males, 15 females) aged 20-30 years living in Deajeon metropolitan city are analyzed and their dietary choline intake. Choline content of one day meal was directly analyzed with the use of enzymatic method. Plasma choline concentration from more than 12 hr fasting blood was analyzed by using HPLC-MS. Choline intakes of male subjects were in the range of 253.51-1724.14 mg and those of female subjects were in the range of 240.85-938.06 mg. Mean intakes of choline were $634.53{\pm}353.68mg$ in male subjects and $473.99{\pm}183.76mg$ in female subjects. Plasma choline concentration of total subjects was in the range of 5.08-14.01 ${\mu}mol/L$. Mean plasma choline concentration was $9.19{\pm}2.05{\mu}mol/L$ in male subjects and $8.11{\pm}1.70{\mu}mol/L$ in female subjects. Plasma choline concentration did not show significant correlation with choline intake in male and total subjects, but showed positive correlation with choline intake in female subjects (p<0.05). This result shows that more studies on large scaled samples are needed.

• Asian-Australasian Journal of Animal Sciences
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• v.29 no.12
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• pp.1742-1747
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• 2016

A $2{\times}5$ factorial experiment, using 2 dietary methionine levels (0.28% and 0.48%) and 5 dietary choline levels (0, 394, 823, 1,239, and 1,743 mg/kg), was conducted to study the effects of dietary methionine status on choline requirements of starter white Pekin ducks from 7 to 28 days of age. Four hundred eighty 7-d-old male White Pekin ducks were randomly allotted to ten dietary treatments, each containing 6 replicate pens with 8 birds per pen. At 28 d of age, weight gain, feed intake, and feed/gain were measured and the legs of all ducks from each pen were examined for incidence of perosis. Perosis and growth depression were observed in choline-deficient ducks and supplementation of choline reduced perosis and significantly increased weight gain and feed intake regardless of dietary methionine levels (p<0.05). In addition, significant positive effects of dietary methionine supplementation on weight gain, feed intake, and feed/gain were observed at any choline level (p<0.05). Supplementation of 1,743 mg/kg choline in diets alleviated the depression of weight gain and feed intake caused by methionine deficiency at 0.28% methionine level. The interaction between choline and methionine influenced weight gain and feed intake of ducks (p<0.05). At 0.28% methionine level, 1,743 mg/kg choline group caused 4.92% and 3.23% amount of improvement in weight gain and feed intake compared with 1,239 mg/kg choline group, respectively. According to the broken-line regression, the choline requirements of starter Pekin ducks for weight gain and feed intake were 1,472 and 1,424 mg/kg at 0.28% methionine level and 946 and 907 mg/kg at 0.48% methionine level, respectively. It suggested the choline recommendations of starter Pekin ducks on a semi-purified diet were 1448 mg/kg at 0.28% methionine level and 927 mg/kg at 0.48% methionine level, respectively. Compared with the adequate methionine level, menthionine deficiency markedly increased the choline requirements of ducks.

• Journal of Nutrition and Health
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• v.55 no.2
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• pp.211-226
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• 2022

Choline, an essential nutrient for humans, is required for the structural integrity of the cell membranes, methyl-group metabolism, synthesis of the neurotransmitter acetylcholine, synthesis of the membrane phospholipid components of the cell membranes, and the transport of lipids and cholesterol. Choline can be synthesized in the body, but it is insufficient to meet the daily requirements and hence it must be obtained through the diet. In the United States/Canada, Australia/New Zealand, Europe, China, and Taiwan, the adequate intake (AI) and tolerable upper intake level (UL) of choline have been established, while the establishment of the 2020 Dietary Reference Intakes for Koreans (KDRI) for choline was postponed due to the lack of a choline database for Korean foods and studies on the choline intake of Koreans. However, as part of the preparation work for the 2020 DRI revision and finalization, choline intake and the possibility of disease occurrence were verified through analysis of published data. The groundwork for the subsequent establishment of a choline DRI was laid through a literature search, evaluation, and review of the literature reported from 1949 up to 2019. This can be regarded as the culmination of this project. According to the results of randomized controlled trials (RCTs), cohort studies, case-control studies, and cross-sectional observational studies in humans, approximately 400-500 mg/day of choline intake was effective in preventing liver function damage (fatty liver), neural tube damage, cardiovascular disease, breast cancer, and cognitive function improvement. The same amount of choline intake, however, also correlated with the risk of prostate and colorectal cancer. At present, there is limited information available on choline intake and health outcomes, particularly for the Korean population. More human studies, including clinical trials on the requirements and the physiological benefits associated with dietary intake, are needed to establish the KDRI for choline.

• Korean Journal of Veterinary Research
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• v.4 no.1
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• pp.15-17
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• 1964

Scabby burley collected in Kyong Sang Nam Do fed to healthy dogs, age less than 2 years, old and determined the Choline-Esterase Activity in blood of dogs. The results obtained in this investigation are summarized as follows. 1. Choline-Esterase Activity in the blood of dogs fed Scabby barley has been decreased. 2. The poisionous component of the Scabby barley thought to be Anticholinesterase.

• Journal of Nutrition and Health
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• v.43 no.6
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• pp.588-596
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• 2010

Most nutrients taken by pregnant women are secreted into their breast milk. Food contains choline together with betaine, and in human body choline is oxidized to betaine which transfer methyl group. The aim of the study was to estimate the concentrations of choline and betaine in breast milk of Korean lactating women and the choline and betaine intakes of their infants. Total choline, free choline and betaine concentrations in breast milk of some lactating women living in Daejon Metropolitan city were analyzed every month by using HPLC-MS and enzymatic method during the first five months. Total choline concentrations of breast milks were 157.64 mg/L (1.52 mmol/L), 157.83 mg/L (1.52 mmol/L), 165.99 mg/L (1.60 mmol/L), 153.67 mg/L (1.48 mmol/L), 145.05 mg/L (1.39 mmol/L) by month after delivery for five months. The concentrations of total choline and free choline in breast milks were not significantly changed for the five months while the betaine concentrations gradually decreased. Daily intake of total choline of the infants appears to be adequate for the infant's requirement according to the US DRI; 124.6 mg/d, 120.9 mg/d, 126.5 mg/d 104.1 mg/d from 2nd to 5th month after birth. Free choline and betaine intakes of the infants were not significantly changed during the four months except showing decrease in betaine intake per kg body weight. Choline intakes of the infants more correlated with choline concentrations of the breast milks (r = 0.982, p = 0.000) than intake amount of the breast milk (r = 0.414, p = 0.028). These results suggest that the choline intake of Korean breast-fed infants appears to be adequate and the intake could be affected by the choline concentration of the breast milk.

• Journal of Food Hygiene and Safety
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• v.23 no.4
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• pp.338-342
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• 2008

Choline is important an organic compound for normal membrane function, acetylcholine synthesis, lipid transport, and methyl metabolism. In biological tissues and foods, there are multiple choline compounds that contribute to choline content. Many researches suggest that memory and intelligence are improved by the supplement of choline. Recently, according to the effects of choline for memory, choline has been added to milk. In this study, the content of choline was analyzed the commercial whole milks and flavored milks by enzymatic method. The standard curve was linear with 0.00316 slope and 0.994 correlation coefficient. Recoveries varied between 89.8 and 97.6%. Contents of choline in whole milks and flavored milks were 14.56-15.19 and 4.11-11.50 mg/100g, respectively. The results of this study may be usable for the establishment of choline adequate intake for Korean.

• Proceedings of the KSCN Conference
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• 2004.12a
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• pp.157-157
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• 2004