• Journal of the Korean Institute of Landscape Architecture
• /
• v.19 no.1
• /
• pp.81-97
• /
• 1991

The purpose of this study is to present the archetype and archetypal forms of traditional Korean landscape patterns through investigating the landscape symbolism of the Bulguk-Sa. This study was performed mainly by both the review of written materials and case study through field surveys. My findings are as follows. Firstly, The decision of Bulguk-Sa site was greatly influenced by the religious backgrounds, the system of contemporary social values and thought at that time. Secondly, The landscape symbolism of the spatial structure based on the form of Mandala and Sumisan, which are parts of Buddhism. Finally, Among the many landscape composing elements, Sukga-Tap, Dabo-Tap, Gupumyoun-Gi and Bumyoung-Ru apparently reveal the symbolic meaning of Buddhism.

• Journal of architectural history
• /
• v.16 no.4
• /
• pp.57-75
• /
• 2007

Bulguk Temple, one of the national temples, sublimated the high formalism and symbolism into lovely art, and thus be called the pinnacle of Korean architecture. Of many characteristic structures of Bulguk Temple, the stone stereobate and stairs have a great importance in that we can read out the purpose of the architect through their relics. Especially, the stone stairs are noteworthy for they structuralize the intentional space division. The objects of this observation are Yeonwhagyo and Chilbogyo bridges at the entrance of Keungnakjeon precinct, and Cheongwoongyo and Baekwoongyo stairs at the entrance of Daewoongjun precinct. All these relics are the structures that divide the precinct areas on the basis of Buddhist theory and have strong symbolic meanings as well. Although the diverse studies have made on the structures, there are many insufficient aspects for the manifestation of the meanings. In this study, I considered the Buddhist dogmatic meanings of the structures in the formalistic view of the Buddhist architecture. The study was proceeded in the way that the establishments of former studies were fully reflected in it. Through the study, I could confirm that the objects of consideration have the double formalistic meanings and they are strongly structuralizing the symbolism.

• Korean Journal of Heritage: History & Science
• /
• v.45 no.3
• /
• pp.212-223
• /
• 2012

Pigments used paintings, ornaments, weapons and various objects have been recognised as important elements to ascertain the history, manufacturing technique and cultural migration. Since the understanding of composition of pigments by analysis began in 1963, its technique and methodology has much advanced in recent years; recent study used the portable X-ray Fluorescence as non-destructive analysis has been practiced in particular. However the study on pigments necessitates overall and systematic research because it is difficult to understand periodical and regional use of pigments. by fractional studies. Therefore this research investigates the coloring materials and painting techniques of the scroll painting depicting preaching scene of Sakyamuni Buddha in Daeungjeon Hall, a main hall of Bulguk temple, through scientific analysis and comparison of various pigments which had been applied to the buddhist paintings of Joseon Dynasty. Consequently, it is confirmed that the scroll painting used pigments of white lead[$2PbCO_3{\cdot}Pb(OH)_2$] for ground layer and used mixture of different pigments such as cinnabar (HgS) minium($Pb_3O_4$) malachite($2CuO{\cdot}CO_2{\cdot}H_2O$) hematite($Fe_2O_3$) gold(Ag) for presenting various colors on the painting layer. It has been also believed that mineral pigments were applied to the scroll painting, yet it is difficult to confirm whether it is natural or synthetic pigments because the crystal structures of pigments were not analyzed. The results of this study, however, provide useful reference data for the understanding of the components of pigments and manufacturing techniques of buddhist scroll paintings, in particular, of Joseon Dynasty.

• Korean Journal of Environment and Ecology
• /
• v.34 no.4
• /
• pp.294-303
• /
• 2020

This study aimed to examine was conducted to the ability of microclimate control in old pine forests by surveying pine forest in Buddhist temples, where the pine forest are stably growing through active protection in the Gyeongnam region, and comparing variation characteristics of microclimate characteristics (temperature and humidity) and distribution of vegetation type. The study sites were pine forests protected well by Buddhist temples (Haein-sa, Beomeo-sa, Tongdo-sa, and Bulguk-sa) in the southeast region of Korea and thus known for stably growing young pine trees. According to the vegetation distribution status analysis, these pine forests did not have a high ratio of pine trees. Except for Tongdo-sa, the ratio of deciduous forest and mixed (deciduous and pine trees) forest had a much larger presence than that of pine forest. Measured data of microclimate showed that the Tongdo-sa area had significantly different characteristics compared to the other three areas. Tongdo-sa area showed a significantly higher diurnal range of temperatures and humidity than the other three areas, in both spring and summer. It is due to the difference in vegetation management. The forests around Tongdo-sa are mostly pine forests, except for the developed areas, while those in the other three areas have a dominant ratio of deciduous brad-leaved forests. Intensive control of pine forest is not effective in mitigating microclimate, i.e., temperature and air humidity. Stress caused by rising temperatures and decreasing air humidity is blamed for the decline of pine forests. Thus, the current active management of pine forests, such as the Tongdo-sa case, has been found to have a greater negative impact on the temperature and humidity stress. Therefore, we believe that a new change in forest management is necessary to increase the effect of mitigating the microclimate of pine forests.

• Journal of the Korean Geographical Society
• /
• v.39 no.1
• /
• pp.56-69
• /
• 2004

We investigated the distribution and geomorphic development of alluvial fan in Gyeongju City including Cheonbuk area. According to a relative height to a river bed, alluvial fans of this area are divided into Higher surface, Middle surface, and Lower surface. As alluvial fans of Bulguk temple∼Ulsan bay area, the confluent fans in Cheonbuk and Gyeongju areas were formed by the Quaternary climatic change alternating glacial and interglacial stages, and the development of N-S and NW-SE fault lines. The Gyeongju alluvial fan, the largest in Korea, has been provided as the significant space for human activity since the prehistoric age. Bukcheon river formed the Gyeongju alluvial fan had not flowed over during the prehistoric and the ancient times. In contrast with general geomorphic characteristics, many springs in the Gyeongju alluvial fan are located in the middle part of the fan because ground water reaches to the surface. It is supposed that sedimental materials were not sufficiently piled up at lower reach of Bukcheon river due to the large deposits at upper and middle reach of the basin.

• Journal of the Korean Society of Surveying, Geodesy, Photogrammetry and Cartography
• /
• v.2 no.1
• /
• pp.54-64
• /
• 1984

This paper is a study on structural measurement by using a terrestrial camera. The aim of this paper is to understand the method of a composition by analyzing the geometrical compositive ratio of threestoried pagodas at Gamun-Sa, Gosun-Sa, Bulguk-Sa, Seated iron Buddha in Kwang-Jn, and Main-Seat Buddha at Sukkuram Cave-temple. Measured data and contour maps are accurately obtained by means of photogrammetry, and the following points are able to he found by analyzing them. At first, for Stone Pagodas. the breaths of the Okgesuks are made to the ratio, 8 : 7 : 6. And when an equililateral triangle and an 45$^{\circ}$ isosceles triangle are drawn of which the bases are the length of the upper Gabsuk, and then a circle is drawn whose radius is the length between the vertexes of the two triangles and its center is the vertex of the former the circle passes the upper line of the third Oksin. Also it can be found that an $70^{\circ}$ isosceles triangle being drawn at base line, the triangle passes the edge point of the upper Gabsuk and the center of the third Okgesuk. Also for Budha statues, it can be found that circles whose center is that of eyes can be drawn, and if 2 lines which pass the shoulder and the center of Buddha's body are extended, they intersect the knees.

• Journal of architectural history
• /
• v.1 no.2 s.2
• /
• pp.68-84
• /
• 1992

The development of Buddhist architectures of the Unified Silla period have been generally understood to have paired pagoda instead of one which had been popular until before the unification. Besides the stylistic categorization of paired pagoda system, there had been no further investigation reported concerning whether there was any detailed process of change within the development of paired pagoda style. This paper aims to identify such change inside the development of paired pagoda style, which, externally, seems to be the same pattern of site design maintained throughout the period of Unified Silla that lasted for about three centuries. Since the temple sites of study are in the same pattern of layout, the method of investigation has to be such that can identify the subtle changes that, in external appearance, are not easily discernible. Hence, this research compared the dimensions of important measurement of five temple sites to be able to clarify the process of minor changes. Among many sites of Silla temples, only five were suitable for the research since detailed measurement were possible through field research or the report of excavation. They are the sites of Sachonwang-sa, Mangduk-sa, site of Kunsuri, and Bulguk-sa. Although the five sites have the same style of paired pagoda, it is clear that there were consistant flow of change. Even though the motivation of such change were not strong enough to change the site pattern itself, it resulted continuous minor changes such as the size and location of architectures. The size of image hall, for example, was growing larger and larger as time goes on, while, the size of Pagoda was getting smaller. In the same way, the size of middle gate became smaller while the size of lecture hall became larger, although the rate of change in these cases were not as severe as that of image hall and pagoda. At the same time, pagoda was coming closer to the middle gate leaving larger space in front of the image hall. Such aspect is even more meaningful considering the fact that the pagoda, from the 8th century in Japan and China, moved outside of the major precinct. The image hall, too, moved toward the middle gate slightly so that the space in front of the lecture hall became more spacious. Such changes, of course, were not accidental but they are the same continuous motivation of change that caused the changes before the period of unification. Enlargement of image hall and reduction of pagoda, for example, represent the changing relative importance of religious meaning. Hence, it is evident that one can not easily imterprete the development of one style only by categorizing it to be one same style. In the veiwpoint of the underlying motivation of change, the fact that one style persisted for a certain period of time, does not mean there had been no change, but means that it was the time of motivational accumulation, causing minor changes within the same style, to be able to create major change coming after.

• Journal of the Mineralogical Society of Korea
• /
• v.31 no.1
• /
• pp.23-32
• /
• 2018

Noerok ia a green pigment used in Joseon dynasty, and its main usage was for forming foundation layers of Dancheong, the ornamental paintings on the surface of traditional buildings in Korea, such as the Daeung-jeon(main hall) of Bulguk-sa temple. In this research, we investigated the mineralogical characteristic changes of Noerok, a traditional Korean pigment, depending on its firing temperature. The Noerok that we experimented on was mined from Noeseong Mountain, Pohang where it is locally reserved. The major composition mineral is Celadonite, and the main constituent elements are Fe, Si, K and Mg, that refers to the existence of Fe-rich mica. As a result of phased firing experiment from $105^{\circ}C$ to $1000^{\circ}C$, the color was changed from green to pale green, then to brown, and finally to red in order. In the thermal analysis, endothermic reaction induced by the dehydration of crystalline water was confirmed at around $616^{\circ}C$. In the mineralogical change, the crystal surface [($11{\bar{1}}$) and ($02{\bar{1}}$)] of the mineral collapsed at temperatures above $600^{\circ}C$, and iron oxide was formed at $1000^{\circ}C$ or higher. Therefore, it is estimated that the crystallization temperature of Noerok is below $600^{\circ}C$, and it is also considered that it has undergone the alteration phase up to stage I, based on the presence of only a celadonite.