Purpose - The purpose of this research is to develop two medical tourism system models which explain medical tourism phenomenon with a systemic approach. Design/methodology - This research was conducted by using a qualitative data analysis which mainly refers to previous references of medical tourism in the areas of tourism and medicine. Leiper's tourism system model was utilized as a conceptual framework. In-depth interviews with experts in the field were conducted in order to pretest the models. Findings - This research suggests a medical tourism system framework and a medical service provision framework. The first model presents medical tourism components and their relationships within a framework presented in a diagram. The second model shows the relationships among medical services required by medical tourists, the service providers, and service human resources along with movements of medical tourists. Originality/value - The first model presents a spatial composition of medical tourism components and their relationships, whereas the second model shows the linkage among medical services, the service providers, and relevant service human resources along with time sequential steps of medical tourists. These two models are complementary and may be used as useful tools to observe medical tourism phenomenon with a systemic and holistic approach. These two models may enable stake holders avoid unnecessary confusions and conflicts that result in duplication of government policies and a waste of budget and human resources.

Purpose - This study aims to identify new attributes by analyzing reviews conducted by global automaker customers and to examine the influence of these attributes on satisfaction ratings in the U.S. automobile sales market. The present study used J.D. Power for customer responses, which is the largest online review site in the USA. Design/methodology - Automobile customer reviews are valid data available to analyze the brand personality of the automaker. This study collected 2,998 survey responses from automobile companies in the U.S. automobile sales market. Keyword analysis, topic modeling, and the multiple regression analysis were used to analyze the data. Findings - Using topic modeling, the author analyzed 2,998 responses of the U.S. automobile brands. As a result, Topic 1 (Competence), Topic 5 (Sincerity), and Topic 6 (Prestige) attributes had positive effects, and Topic 2 (Sophistication) had a negative effect on overall customer responses. Topic 4 (Conspicuousness) did not have any statistical effect on this research. Topic 1, Topic 5, and Topic 6 factors also show the importance of buying factors. This present study has contributed to identifying a new attribute, personality. These findings will help global automakers better understand the impacts of Topic 1, Topic 5, and Topic 6 on purchasing a car. Originality/value - Contrary to a traditional approach to brand analysis using questionnaire survey methods, this study analyzed customer reviews using text mining. This study is timely research since a big data analysis is employed in order to identify direct responses to customers in the future.

Purpose - In terms of human resource management, many Korean enterprises in China have experienced problems such as frequent resignations of Chinese employees and labor disputes. This can be mainly attributed to the fact that Chinese employees are not consistent with Korean vertical management methods, which is closely related to the national culture theory proposed by Hofstede, specifically the dimension of power distance and long- versus short-term orientation (LTO). Therefore, this research aims to investigate cultural differences between Korea and China from these two dimensions, and the impact on the human resource management of Korean-invested enterprises in China. Design/methodology - This research first utilizes the latest data (Wave 7) of the World Values Survey (WVS) to verify the difference in power distance and long- versus short-term orientation between Korean and Chinese cultures using responses from Korea and China, and then uses case analysis to analyze the impact of this cultural difference on the human resource management of Korean enterprises in China. Findings - Our main findings can be summarized as follows. Korea and China have significant differences in power distance and long- versus short-term orientation. In terms of power distance, Korean respondents show higher power distance compared to Chinese respondents. In the dimension of long- versus short-term orientation, it was found that Chinese respondents showed a shorter-term orientation, whereas Korean respondents showed a longer-term orientation. Originality/value - Previous studies put focus on the power distance and individualism-collectivism dimensions to explain cultural differences between Korea and China, and generated contradictory results. This research further confirms the cultural differences between Korea and China from the dimensions of power distance and long-versus short-term orientation using secondary data. The comparative studies from this perspective have long been underexplored and lack empirical confirmation.

Purpose - This paper research on the embodied carbon emission in Sino-Korea trade. It calculates and analyzes the carbon emission coefficient and specific carbon emissions in Sino-Korea trade from 2005 to 2014. Design/methodology - This paper conducted an empirical analysis for embodied carbon emission in Sino-Korea trade during the years 2005-2014, using a multi-region input-output model. First, direct and complete CO2 emission coefficient of the two countries were calculated and compared. On this basis, combined with the world input-output table, the annual import and export volume and sector volume of embodied carbon emission are determined. Then through the comparative analysis of the empirical results, the reasons for the carbon imbalance in Sino-Korea trade are clarified, and the corresponding suggestions are put forward according to the environmental protection policies being implemented by the two countries. Findings - The results show that South Korea is in the state of net trade export and net embodied carbon import. The carbon emission coefficient of most sectors in South Korea is lower than that of China. However, the reduction of carbon emission coefficient in China is significantly faster than that in South Korea in this decade. The change of Korea's complete CO2 emission coefficient shows that policy factors have a great impact on environmental protection. The proportion of intra industry trade between China and South Korea is relatively large and concentrated in mechanical and electrical products, chemical products, etc. These sectors generally have large carbon emissions, which need to be noticed by both countries. Originality/value - To the best knowledge of the authors, this study is the first attempt to research the embodied carbon emission of ten consecutive years in Sino-Korea Trade. In addition, In this paper, some mathematical methods are used to overcome the error problem caused by different statistical caliber in different databases. Finally, the accurate measurement of carbon level in bilateral trade will provide some reference for trade development and environmental protection.

Purpose - This article will take the Korean manufacturing industry as an example to estimate Korea's global value chain status from the perspective of overall and sub-industry, hoping to provide a theoretical reference for Korean manufacturing to climb the global value chain. Design/methodology - Based on the WIOD data. The data is calculated by using MATLAB (2014a) coding. The data for 6 sectors are classified according to the International Standard Industrial Classification revision 3 (ISIC Rev. 3), the WIOD data are used to calculate and compare the position, participation and dynamics of the Korea, China and USA' manufacturing industry in the 1995-2016. Findings - The empirical results supported conclusions of the theoretical model. In the Korean GVC of electrical and optical sector, while stronger forward linkages than backward linkages to GVC are advantageous for an average advanced country, the benefits of downstream tasks are pronounced for non-advanced countries. And proved the correlation for an index to capture a country's upstream position or downstream position, it makes sense to compare that Korea's exports of intermediates in the same sector that are used by China and USA. Originality/value - The first is to re-examine the characteristics of South Korea's participation in global value chains under a more systematic and accurate theoretical framework, which provides a new empirical reference for related research; the second is to content covers of the manufacturing 6 sectors, so as to more completely describe the characteristics of Korean manufacturing's participation in global value chains; The value of this paper is providing empirical evidence of the effect of Korea's the GVC of manufacturing sectors. In the GVC of 6 sectors, first three have a higher position in the value chain and are in the upper middle and upper reaches of the GVC. The latter two have a low GVC position index, which has become the main sector that pulls down the overall position of Korea's manufacturing industry.

Purpose - This paper intends to conduct theoretical analysis and empirical test on the action mechanism of South Korea-China trade and South Korea's FDI to China on green total factor productivity, so as to provide a new perspective and ideas for the improvement of China's green total factor productivity and promote the high-quality development of China's economy Design/methodology - This paper uses the data of 30 provinces, autonomous regions and municipalities in China from 2004 to 2017 as the research sample, adopts the GML index method of SBM Directional Distance Function to measure GTFP, and analyzes the influence of South Korea-China trade and FDI from South Korea on China's GTFP. Findings - Trade is conducive to promoting technological progress, which has a significant promotion effect on China's green total factor productivity. While FDI has a significant inhibitory effect on China's green total factor productivity, which verifies the "pollution haven" hypothesis. In addition, such influence has certain regional overall heterogeneity. Trade has a more significant promoting effect on GTFP in eastern coastal areas, while FDI has a more significant inhibitory effect on GTFP in central and western inland areas. The interaction between trade and FDI is conducive to the improvement of green total factor productivity, indicating that the benign mechanism of trade and FDI has been formed. Urbanization, industrial structure, human resource level and investment in science and technology are all conducive to the improvement of GTFP. Originality/value - Through theoretical analysis and empirical test on the action mechanism of South Korea-China trade and South Korea's FDI on green total factor productivity, this paper provides a solid theoretical foundation for the further development of China-South Korea economic and trade cooperation in the future.

Purpose - Although remittance payment in international trade settlements has played a bigger role in recent years, scant research is being done. This study is to zero in on analyzing determinants of international trade payments focused on remittance by constructing a payment prediction model. Design/methodology - This study categorizes the types of trade payments into advance remittance, post remittance, linked remittance, letter of credit, and mixed payment, and analyzes these after constructing a logit model. For empirical analysis, 147 survey data were collected for export manufacturers in Korea, and binominal logistic regression analysis was used to analyze the type of payment method the exporter chooses for trade transactions. Findings - The likelihood of choosing advance remittance increased as the exporters had non-recovery experiences with payments, and decreased as the market power of importers increased. The possibility of post remittance increased when the export amount was large and the character of the buyer was reliable. In the case of linked remittance, it was highly likely to be selected when payment efficiency was important in trade settlement. In addition, when competition among companies in the global market is intense and market uncertainty is high, the possibility of using a letter of credit decreases. It was also found that the greater the export amount, the greater the possibility of choosing advance remittance, and even if the transaction period was longer, exporters using a letter of credit continued to use it. Originality/value - Despite the high proportion of remittances in international trade settlements, it has been hard to find studies that reflect the practical characteristics of remittances. This study classified the types of remittance into advance remittance, post remittance, and linked remittance, and built a trade payment prediction model by adding a letter of credit and mixed payment. In addition, the originality of this study is recognized in that a logistic model was constructed and meaningful results were derived.

Purpose - This study empirically analyzes the impact of the internal and external network embeddedness of foreign subsidiaries and local market characteristics of the host country on the CEO selection whether or not to appoint an expatriate as the CEO of a foreign subsidiary. Design/methodology - To conduct an empirical analysis, we obtained a list of the headquarters of Korean MNCs from the Korea Chamber of Commerce and Industry. Based on the list of HQs, we identified a final list of overseas subsidiaries of Korean MNCs that have entered the world from KOTRA (Trade-Investment Promotion Agency for Korea). Then we conducted an empirical analysis based on the results of 391 questionnaires by employing logistic regression analysis. Findings - The results of empirical analysis are as follows. First, the higher the subsidiary's internal network embeddedness, the higher the tendency appoint an expatriate as the CEO. Second, the higher the volatility of the local market, the higher the tendency to appoint an expatriate as the CEO. Third, the stronger the competition in the local market, the lower the tendency to appoint a PCN. Originality/value - This study has significant theoretical implications in that it examines the link between the internal and external embeddedness of overseas subsidiaries and the appointment of parent country nationals (PCNs) as the CEO that prior research has not examined.

Purpose - This study analyses the excepted requirement and burden of proof of the carrier due to unseaworthiness through comparison between the marine transport contract and marine insurance contract. Design/methodology - This study uses the legal analytical normative approach. The juridical approach involves reviewing and examining theories, concepts, legal doctrines and legislation that are related to the problems. In this study a literature analysis using academic literature and internet data is conducted. Findings - The burden of proof in case of seaworthiness should be based on presumed fault, not proved fault. The burden of proving unseaworthiness/seaworthiness should shift to the carrier, and should be exercised before seeking the protections of the law or carriage contract. In other words, the insurer cannot escape coverage for unfitness of a vessel which arises while the vessel is at sea, which the assured could not have prevented in the exercise of due diligence. The insurer bears the burden of proving unseaworthiness. The warranty of seaworthiness is implied in hull, but not protection and indemnity policies. The 2015 Act repeals ss. 33(3) and 34 of MIA 1906. Otherwise the provisions of the MIA 1906 remain in force, including the definition of a promissory warranty and the recognition of implied warranties. There is less clarity about the position when the source of the loss occurs before the breach of warranty but the actual loss is suffered after the breach. Nonetheless, by s.10(2) of the 2015 Act the insurer appears not to be liable for any loss occurring after the breach of warranty and before there has been a remedy. Originality/value - When unseaworthiness is identified after the sailing of the vessel, mere acceptance of the ship does not mean the party waives any claims for damages or the right to terminate the contract, provided that failure to comply with the contractual obligations is of critical importance. The burden of proof with regards to loss of damage to a cargo caused by unseaworthiness is regulated by the applicable law. For instance, under the common law, if the cargo claimant alleges that the loss or damage has been caused by unseaworthiness, then he has the burden of proof to establish the followings: (i) that the vessel was unseaworthy at the beginning of the voyage; and that, (ii) that the loss or damage has been caused by such unseaworthiness. In other words, if the warranty of seaworthiness at the inception of the voyage is breached, the breach voids the policy if the ship owner had prior knowledge of the unseaworthy condition. By contrast, knowingly permitting the vessel to break ground in an unseaworthy condition denies liability only for loss or damage proximately caused by the unseaworthiness. Such a breach does not, therefore, void the entire policy, but only serves to exonerate the insurer for loss or damage proximately caused by the unseaworthy condition.

Purpose - This study aims to analyze consumer in the multidimensional aspect of a combination of corporate image and brand personality in order to identify the structural causal relationship between consumer choice and corporate image and brand personality. Design/methodology - This study combined theoretical literature studies with empirical field studies using questionnaire survey methods. To achieve this objective, a hypothetical causal model consisting of three potential variables and nine measurement variables was created based on prior research, and a structural equation model was used to identify the suitability of the model. Findings - The hypothetical model established by this study was judged to be generally appropriate. In particular, corporate image was shown to have significant static direct effects on consumer choice and brand personality. It was also shown that brand personality had a direct static effect on consumer choice, and that corporate image has an indirect significant impact on consumer choice by moderating brand personality. Originality/value - Previous papers have mainly focused on one-dimensional studies of various images, such as companies and brands. However, this paper used a model that analyzed consumer choice through multi-clue information rather than corporate images as the only clue to consumer choice.

Purpose - We attempted to empirically verify the effects of managerial attributes on cost stickiness in exporters. Exporters are often affected not only by external factors such as exchange rate but also by internal factors such as managerial attributes regarding their business activities. Because cost stickiness is the product of a manager's decision-making, it has been considered that managerial attributes have a great influence on the behavior. Therefore, our study was intended to find out whether cost stickiness shows differentiated aspects depending on managerial attributes in exporters. Design/methodology - We considered two managerial attributes: CEO power and managerial overconfidence. First, CEO power was measured as CEO pay slice. In addition, managerial overconfidence was measured based on three methodologies presented by previous studies. To measure cost stickiness, we used multiple methodologies presented by prior research. Findings - The results of our empirical analysis are as follows. First, in export firms, the greater CEO power is, the greater cost stickiness is. This result suggested that export managers with great influence little respond to temporary sales decrease promptly, little reduce related production costs flexibly in preparation for future sales recovery, but leave room to endure costs for idle resources. Second, the greater managerial overconfidence is, the greater cost stickiness is. This result indicated that export managers with great overconfidence on their decision-making often view the prospect for sales recovery positively; therefore, they little respond to temporary sales decrease immediately, little reduce related production costs flexibly for future sales recovery, but leave room to endure costs for idle resources. Third, export managers with great influence in their businesses and great overconfidence in their decision-making tend to show relatively great cost stickiness. The results proposed that the combination of the two factors functions to make cost stickiness greater. Originality/value - Our study is differentiated from extant studies in that we provided empirical evidence of the effects of managerial attributes on their business activities in exporters. Specifically, we verified the effects of managerial attributes on cost stickiness in Korean exporters. The results of our study are expected to contribute to providing useful information for exporters and start-ups.