DOI QR코드

DOI QR Code

Brand Personality of Global Automakers through Text Mining

  • Kim, Sungkuk (Department of International Trade, Sungkyunkwan University)
  • Received : 2020.09.11
  • Accepted : 2021.04.02
  • Published : 2021.04.30

Abstract

Purpose - This study aims to identify new attributes by analyzing reviews conducted by global automaker customers and to examine the influence of these attributes on satisfaction ratings in the U.S. automobile sales market. The present study used J.D. Power for customer responses, which is the largest online review site in the USA. Design/methodology - Automobile customer reviews are valid data available to analyze the brand personality of the automaker. This study collected 2,998 survey responses from automobile companies in the U.S. automobile sales market. Keyword analysis, topic modeling, and the multiple regression analysis were used to analyze the data. Findings - Using topic modeling, the author analyzed 2,998 responses of the U.S. automobile brands. As a result, Topic 1 (Competence), Topic 5 (Sincerity), and Topic 6 (Prestige) attributes had positive effects, and Topic 2 (Sophistication) had a negative effect on overall customer responses. Topic 4 (Conspicuousness) did not have any statistical effect on this research. Topic 1, Topic 5, and Topic 6 factors also show the importance of buying factors. This present study has contributed to identifying a new attribute, personality. These findings will help global automakers better understand the impacts of Topic 1, Topic 5, and Topic 6 on purchasing a car. Originality/value - Contrary to a traditional approach to brand analysis using questionnaire survey methods, this study analyzed customer reviews using text mining. This study is timely research since a big data analysis is employed in order to identify direct responses to customers in the future.

Keywords

References

  1. Aaker, J. L. (1997), "Dimensions of Brand Personality", Journal of Marketing Research, 34(3), 347-356. https://doi.org/10.1177/002224379703400304
  2. Aaker, J. L. (1999), "The Malleable Self: The Role of Self-Expression in Persuasion", Journal of Marketing Research, 36(1), 45-57. https://doi.org/10.1177/002224379903600104
  3. Aaker, J. L., K. D. Vohs and C. Mogilner (2010), "Nonprofits are seen as warm and for-profits as competent: firm stereotypes matter", Journal of Consumer Research, 37(2), 224-237. https://doi.org/10.1086/651566
  4. Aaker, J. L., V. Benet-Martinez and J. Garolera (2001), "Consumption symbols as carriers of culture: a study of Japanese and Spanish brand personality constructs", Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 81(3), 492-508. https://doi.org/10.1037//0022-3514.81.3.492
  5. Archak, N., A. Ghose and P. G. Ipeirotis (2011), "Deriving the pricing power of product features by mining consumer reviews," Management Science, 57(8), 1485-1509. https://doi.org/10.1287/mnsc.1110.1370
  6. Arnould, E. J. and L. L. Price (1993), "River Magic: Extraordinary Experience and the Extended Service Encounter", Journal of Consumer Research, 20(1), 24-45. https://doi.org/10.1086/209331
  7. Baltas, G. and C. Saridakis (2013), "An empirical investigation of the impact of behavioral and psychographic consumer characteristics on car preferences: An integrated model of car type choice", Transportation Research Part A: Policy and Practice, 54, 92-110. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tra.2013.07.007.
  8. Belk, R. W. (1988), "Profession and Extended Self", Journal of Consumer Research, 15(7), 139-169. https://doi.org/10.1086/209154
  9. Berkovec, J. and J. Rust (1985), "A nested logit model of automobile holdings for one vehicle households", Transportation Research Part B: Methodological, 19, 275-285. https://doi.org/10.1016/0191-2615(85)90036-0
  10. Biber, D., S. Conrad and R. Reppen (1998), Corpus Linguistics: Investigating language structure and use, Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.
  11. Blei, D. M. (2011), "Introduction to Probabilistic Topic Models", Communications of the ACM, 55, 1-16.
  12. Blei, D. M., A. Y. Ng and M. I. Jordan (2003), "Latent Dirichlet Allocation", Journal of Machine Learning Research, 3(January), 993-1022.
  13. Bosnjak, M., V. Bochmann and T. Hufschmidt (2007), "Dimensions of brand personality attributions: a person- centric approach in the German cultural context", Social Behavior and Personality: An International Journal, 35(3), 303-316. https://doi.org/10.2224/sbp.2007.35.3.303
  14. Brakus, J., B. Schmitt and L. Zarantonello (2009), "Brand Experience: What Is It? How Is It Measured? Does It Affect Loyalty?", Journal of Marketing, 73(5), 52-68. https://doi.org/10.1509/jmkg.73.5.52
  15. Brister, J. M. (1991), "Word of mouth communication and their effects in consumer network", Advances in Consumer Research, 18, 155-169.
  16. Brownstone, D., D. Bunch and K. Train (2000), "Joint mixed logit models of stated and revealed preferences for alternative-fuel vehicles", Transportation Research Part B: Methodological, 34, 315-338. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0191-2615(99)00031-4
  17. Campbell, A. R., T. Ryley, and R. Thring (2012), "Identifying the early adopters of alternative fuel vehicles: a case study of Birmingham, United Kingdom", Transportation Research Part A: Policy and Practice, 46, 1318-1327. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tra.2012.05.004
  18. Cao, X., P. L. Mokhtarian and S. L. Handy (2006), "Neighbourhood design and vehicle type choice: evidence from Northern California", Transportation Research Part D: Transport and Environment, 11, 133-145. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.trd.2005.10.001
  19. Caprara, G. V., C. Barbaranelli and G. Guideo (2001), "Brand Personality: How to Make the Metaphor Fit", Journal of Economic Psychology, 22(3), 377-395. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0167-4870(01)00039-3
  20. Cattell, R. B. (1943), "The Description Of Personality: Basic Traits Resolved Into Clusters", Journal of Abnormal And Social Psychology, 38(4), 476-506. https://doi.org/10.1037/h0054116
  21. Chae, Seung-Hoon, Jay-Ick Lim and Kang Ju-Yong (2015), "A Comparative Analysis of Social Commerce and Open Market Using User Reviews in Korean Mobile Commerce," Journal Intelligence Information System, 21(4), 53-77. http://dx.doi.org/10.13088/jiis.2015.21.4.053
  22. Chatterjee, P. (2001), "Online review: Do consumers use them?", Advances in Consumer Research, 28, 129-133.
  23. Chen, K. C. (2009), "Text Mining e-Complaints Data From e-Auction Store with Implications for Internet Marketing Research", Journal of Business & Economics Research, 7(5), 42-49.
  24. Chen, Q. and S. Rogers (2006), "Development of an instrument to measure web site personality", Journal of Interactive Advertising, 7(1), 4-46. https://doi.org/10.1080/15252019.2006.10722124
  25. Chevalier, J. A. and D. Mayzlin (2003), The Effect of Word of Mouth on Sales: Online Book Reviews (Working Paper w10148), Cambridge, MA: National Bureau of Economic Research, Available from https://www.nber.org/system/files/working_papers/w10148/w10148.pdf
  26. Choo, S. and P. L. Mokhtarian (2004), " What type of vehicle do people drive? The role of attitude and lifestyle in influencing vehicle type choice", Transportation Research Part A: Policy and Practice, 38, 201-222. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tra.2003.10.005
  27. Coughlan, M., P. Cronin and F. Ryan (2013), "Survey research: Process and limitations," International Journal of Therapy and Rehabilitation, 16(1), 9-15. https://doi.org/10.12968/ijtr.2009.16.1.37935
  28. d'Astous, A. and L. Boujbel (2007), "Positioning countries on personality dimensions: scale development and implications for country marketing", Journal of Business Research, 60(3), 231-239. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jbusres.2006.11.005
  29. d'Astous, A. and M. Levesque (2003), "A scale for measuring store personality", Psychology and Marketing, 20(5), 455-469. https://doi.org/10.1002/mar.10081
  30. Das, G., B. Datta and K. K. Guin (2012), "Impact of retailer personality on consumer-based retailer equity: an empirical study of retail brands", Asia Pacific Journal of Marketing and Logistics, 24(4), 619-639 https://doi.org/10.1108/13555851211259052
  31. Davies, G., J. I. Rojas-Mendez, S. Whelan, M. Mete and T. Loo (2018), "Brand personality: theory and dimensionality", Journal of Product & Brand Management, 27(2), 115-127. https://doi.org/10.1108/JPBM-06-2017-1499
  32. Davies, G., R. Chun, R. V. da Silva and S. Roper (2004), "A corporate character scale to assess employee and customer views of organisation reputation", Corporate Reputation Review, 7(2), 125-146. https://doi.org/10.1057/palgrave.crr.1540216
  33. Egbert, J. and D. Biber (2019), "Incorporating text dispersion into keyword analyses", Corpora, 14(1), 77-104. https://doi.org/10.3366/cor.2019.0162
  34. Eisend, M. and N. E. Stokburger-Sauer (2013), "Brand personality: a meta-analytic review of antecedents and consequences", Marketing Letters, 24(3), 205-216. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11002-013-9232-7
  35. Erickson, G., J. Johansson and P. Chao (1984), "The Image Variables in Multi-Attribute Product Evaluations: Country-of-Origin Effects", Journal of Consumer Research, 11, 694-699, https://doi.org/10.1086/209005
  36. Fiske, D. W. (1949), "Consistency of the Factorial Structures of Personality Ratings from Different Sources", Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, 44(3), 329-344. https://doi.org/10.1037/h0057198
  37. Gabrielatos, C. (2018), "Keyness Analysis: nature, metrics and techniques". In C. Taylor and A. Marchi (Eds.), Corpus Approaches to Discourse: A critical review. Chapter 12, Oxford, UK: Routledge.
  38. George, A. (1959), "Quantitative and Qualitative Approaches to Content Analysis". In A. Raftery (Ed.), Sociological Methodology, Oxford: Basil Blackwell, 35-144.
  39. Geuens, M., B. Weijters and K. de Wulf (2009), "A new measure of brand personality", International Journal of Research in Marketing, 26(2), 97-107. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijresmar.2008.12.002
  40. Godbole, S. and S. Roy (2008), "Text to Intelligence: Building and Deploying a Text Mining Solution in the Services Industry for Customer Satisfaction Analysis", 2008 IEEE International Conference on Services Computing, Honolulu, HI., 441-448,
  41. Goldberg, L. R. (1993), "An Alternative Description of Personality: The Big Five Factor Structure", Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 59(6), 1216-1229. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.59.6.1216
  42. Goyette, I., L. B. Ricard and F. Marticotte (2010), "E-WOM Scale: Word of Mouth Measurement Scale for E-Services Context", Canadian Journal of Administrative Science, 27, 5-23. https://doi.org/10.1002/cjas.129
  43. Grimes, S. (2005), "The developing text mining market", white paper, Text Mining Summit Alta Plana Corporation, Boston, MA., 1-12.
  44. Gronroos, C. (1996), "The value concept and relationship marketing", European Journal of Marketing, 30(2), 19-30. https://doi.org/10.1108/03090569610106626
  45. Gronroos, C. (1997), "Value-driven relational marketing: From products to resources and competencies", Journal of Marketing Management, 13(5), 407-419. https://doi.org/10.1080/0267257X.1997.9964482
  46. Gupta, V. and G. Lehal (2009), "A Survey of Text Mining Techniques and Applications", Journal of Emerging Technologies in Web Intelligence, 1(1), August 2009, 60-76.
  47. Henning-Thurau, T., K. P. Gwinner, G. Walsh and D. D. Gernler (2004), "Electronic word of mouth viva consumer opinion platforms: what motivates consumers to articulate themselves on the internet", Journal of Interaction Marketing, 18(1), 38-52. https://doi.org/10.1002/dir.10073
  48. Herbst, U. and M. A. Merz (2011), "The industrial brand personality scale: building strong business-to-business brands", Industrial Marketing Management, 40(7), 1072-1081. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.indmarman.2011.09.003
  49. Hocherman, I., J. Prashker and M. Ben-Akiva, M. (1983), "Estimation and use of dynamic transaction models of automobile ownership", Transportation Research Record, 944, 134-141.
  50. Holsti, O. R. (1969), Content Analysis for the Social Sciences and Humanities, Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley.
  51. J.D.Power (2019), U. S. Automotive Brand Loyalty Study (2019), http://www.jdpower.com/pr-id/2019173 (accessed June 25, 2020)
  52. Kaplan, M. D., O. Yurt, B. Guneri and K. Kurtulus (2010), "Branding places: applying brand personality concept to cities", European Journal of Marketing, 44(Nos 9/10), 1286-1304. https://doi.org/10.1108/03090561011062844
  53. Keller, K. L. (1993), "Conceptualizing, Measuring, and Managing Customer-Based Equity", Journal of Applied Psychology, 85(5), 751-765. https://doi.org/10.1037/0021-9010.85.5.751
  54. Kim, En-Gir and Se-Hak Chun (2019), "Analyzing Online Car Reviews Using Text Mining", Sustainability, 11(6), 1611. https://doi.org/10.3390/su11061611
  55. Kim, Kwang-Kook, Yong-Hwan Kim and Ja-Hee Kim (2018), "A Study on Customer Satisfaction of Mobile Shopping Apps Using Topic Analysis of User Reviews", The Journal of Society for e-Business Studies, 23(4), 41-62. https://doi.org/10.7838/jsebs.2018.23.4.041
  56. Kim, Yong-Hwan, Ja-Hee Kim, Ji-Hoon Park and Seung-Jun Lee (2016), "Analysis of Success Factors for Mobile Commerce using Text Mining and PLS Regression," Journal of the Korea Society of Computer and Information, 21(11), 127-134. https://doi.org/10.9708/jksci.2016.21.11.127
  57. Kostyra, D. S., J. Reiner, M. Natter and D. Klapper (2016), "Decomposing the effects of online customer reviews on brand, price, and product attributes," International Journal of Research in Marketing, 33(1), 11-26. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijresmar.2014.12.004
  58. Kotler, P., K. L. Keller, M. Brady, M. Goodman and T. Hansen (2009), Marketing Management, Harlow, UK: Pearson Education.
  59. Kozinets, R. V. (2002), "Can Consumers Escape the Market? Emancipatory Illuminations from Burning Man", Journal of Consumer Research, 29(1), 20-38. https://doi.org/10.1086/339919
  60. Lave, C. A., and K. Train (1979), "A disaggregate model of auto-type choice", Transportation Research Part A: Policy and Practice, 13, 1-9. https://doi.org/10.1016/0191-2607(79)90081-5
  61. Macnamara, J. (2003), "Media Content Analysis-Its Uses, Benefits and Best Practice Methodology", Asia Pacific Public Relations Journal, 6(1), 1-34.
  62. Maheswaran, D., D. M. Mackie and S. Chaiken (1992), "Brand name as a heuristic cue: The effects of task importance and expectancy confirmation on consumer judgments", Journal of Consumer Psychology, 1(4), 317-336. https://doi.org/10.1016/S1057-7408(08)80058-7
  63. Mannering, F. and C. Winston (1985), "A dynamic empirical analysis of household vehicle ownership and utilization", Rand Journal of Economics, 16, 215-236. https://doi.org/10.2307/2555411
  64. Mannering, F., C. Winston, C. and W. Starkey (2002), "An exploratory analysis of automobile leasing by US households", Journal of Urban Economics, 52, 154-176. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0094-1190(02)00009-8
  65. Manski, C. F. and L. Sherman (1980), "An empirical analysis of household choice among motor vehicles", Transportation Research Part A: Policy and Practice, 14, 349-366. https://doi.org/10.1016/0191-2607(80)90054-0
  66. Mantel, S. P. and F. R. Kardes (1999), "The role of direction of comparison, attribute-based processing, and attitude-based processing in consumer preference", Journal of Consumer Research, 25(4), 335-352. https://doi.org/10.1086/209543
  67. McEnery, T., A. McEnery, R. Xiao and Y. Tono (2006), Corpus-based Language Studies: An Advanced Resource Book, Oxford, UK: Routledge.
  68. Meyer, C. and A. Schwager (2007), "Understanding Customer Experience", Harvard Business Review, 85(2), 116-126.
  69. Milas, G. and B. Mlacic (2007), "Brand personality and human personality: findings from ratings of familiar Croatian brands", Journal of Business Research, 60(6), 620-626. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jbusres.2006.06.011
  70. Mudambi, S. M. and D. Schuff (2010), "What makes a helpful review? A study of customer reviews on Amazon. com.," MIS quarterly, 34(1), 185-200. https://doi.org/10.2307/20721420
  71. Muniz, K. M. and R. Z. Marchetti (2012), "Brand personality dimensions in the Brazilian context", Brazilian Administration Review, 9(2), 168-188. https://doi.org/10.1590/S1807-76922012000200004
  72. Neuendorf, K. A. (2002), The Content Analysis Guidebook, Thousand Oak, CA: Sage.
  73. Newbold, C., O. Boyd-Barrett and H. Van den Bulck (2002), The Media Book, London: Arnold.
  74. Nguyen, H., R. Calantone and R. Krishnan (2019), "Influence of Social Media Emotional Word of Mouth on Institutional Investors' Decisions and Firm Value", Management Science, 66(2), 887-910. https://doi.org/10.1287/mnsc.2018.3226
  75. Nguyen, N. and G. Leblanc (2001), "Corporate Image and Corporate Reputation in Customers' Retention Decisions in Services", Journal of Retailing & Consumer Services, 8(4), 227-236. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0969-6989(00)00029-1
  76. Norman, W. T. (1967), 2,800 Personality Trait Descriptors: Normative Operating Characteristics for a University Population, Ann Arbor, MI: Department of Psychology, University of Michigan.
  77. Palmatier, R. W. (2008), Relationship Marketing, Cambridge, UK: Marketing Science Institute.
  78. Pine, B. J. and Gilmore, J. H. (1999), The Experience Economy: Work Is Theatre and Every Business A Stage, Boston, MA: Harvard Business School Press.
  79. Pool, I. de S. (Ed.) (1959), Trends in Content Analysis, Champaign: University of Illinois Press.
  80. Rainer, A. and T. Hall (2003), "A Quantitative and Qualitative Analysis of Factors Affecting Software Processing", Journal of Systems and Software, 66(1), 7-13. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0164-1212(02)00059-6
  81. Ramanathan, V. and T. Meyyappan (2013), "Survey of Text Mining", International Conference on Technology and Business and Management, March 2013, 508-514.
  82. Rauschnabel, P. A., N. Krey, B. J. Babin and B. S. Ivens (2016), "Brand management in higher education: the university brand personality scale", Journal of Business Research, 69(8), 3077-3086. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jbusres.2016.01.023
  83. Reisenbichler, M. and T. Reutterer (2018), "Topic modeling in marketing: recent advances and research opportunities", Journal of Business Economics, 1-30. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11573-013-0694-0
  84. Reppen, R. (2001), "Review of MonoConc Pro and WordSmith Tools", Language Learning & Technology, 5(3), 32-36.
  85. Richardson, P. S., A. S. Dick and A. K. Jain (1994), "Extrinsic and intrinsic cue effects on perceptions of store brand quality", Journal of Marketing, 58(4), 28-36. https://doi.org/10.2307/1251914
  86. Roberts, C. W. (2000), "A Conceptual Framework for Quantitative Text Analysis", Quality & Quantity, 34, 259-274. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1004780007748
  87. Rojas-Mendez, J. I., S. A. Murphy and N. Papadopoulos (2013a), "The US brand personality: a Sino perspective", Journal of Business Research, 66(8), 1028-1034. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jbusres.2011.12.027
  88. Rojas-Mendez, J. I., S. A. Murphy and N. Papadopoulos (2013b), "Measuring and positioning nation brands: a comparative brand personality approach", Corporate Reputation Review, 16(1), 48-65. https://doi.org/10.1057/crr.2012.25
  89. Romano, N. C., Jr., C. Donovan, H. Chen and J. F. Nunamaker Jr. (2003), "A Methodology for Analyzing Web-Based Qualitative Data", Journal of Management Information Systems, 19 (4), 213-246. https://doi.org/10.1080/07421222.2003.11045741
  90. Schindler, R. M. and B. Bickart (2005), "Published Word of Mouth: Referable, Consumer-Generated Information on the Internet". In C. Hauvgedt, M. Karen and R. Yalch (Eds.), Online consumer psychology: Understanding and influencing consumer behavior in the virtual world, Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, 35-61.
  91. Scott, Mike (1997), "PC Analysis of Key Words", System, 25(2), 233-245. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0346-251X(97)00011-0
  92. Scott, Mike (2016), WordSmith Tools Help, Stroud, UK: Lexical Analysis Software.
  93. Seo, Min-Kyo, Yang Oh-Suk and Yang Yoon-Ho (2020), "Global Big Data Analysis Exploring the Determinants of Application Ratings: Evidence from the Google Play Store", Journal of Korea Trade, 24(7), 1-28. https://doi.org/10.35611/jkt.2020.24.7.1
  94. Simmons, C. J. and J. G. Lynch Jr. (1991), "Inference Effects Without Inference Making? Effects of Missing Information on Discounting and Use of Presented Information", Journal of Consumer Research, 17(4), 477-491. https://doi.org/10.1086/208572
  95. Slaughter, J. E., M. J. Zickar, S. Highhouse and D. C. Mohr (2004), "Personality trait inferences about organizations: development of a measure and assessment of construct validity", Journal of Applied Psychology, 89(1), 85-102. https://doi.org/10.1037/0021-9010.89.1.85
  96. Smit, E. G., E. Van den Berge and G. Franzen (2002), "Brands are just like real people! The development of SWOCC's brand personality scale", In F. Hansen and L. B. Christensen (Eds.), Branding and Advertising, Copenhagen, Denmark: Copenhagen Business School Press, 22-43.
  97. Sung, Y., S. M. Choi, H. Ahn and Y. A. Song (2015), "Dimensions of luxury brand personality: scale development and validation", Psychology & Marketing, 32(1), 121-132. https://doi.org/10.1002/mar.20767
  98. Swaminathan, V., K. L. Page and Z. Gurhan-Canli (2007), ""My" Brand or "Our" Brand: The Effects of Brand Relationship Dimensions and Self-Construal on Brand Evaluations", Journal of consumer research, 34(2), 248-259. https://doi.org/10.1086/518539
  99. Train, K. and C. Winston (2007), "Vehicle choice behavior and the declining market share of U.S. automakers", International Economic Review, 48, 1469-1496. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1468-2354.2007.00471.x
  100. Tupes, E. C. and R. E. Christal (1961), "Recurrent Personality Factors Based on Trait Ratings", Journal of Personality, 60(2), 225-251. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-6494.1992.tb00973.x
  101. Venable, B. T., G. M. Rose, V. D. Bush and F. W. Gilbert (2005), "The role of Brand personality in charitable giving: an assessment and validation", Journal of the Academy of Marketing Science, 33(3), 295-312. https://doi.org/10.1177/0092070305276147
  102. Vergne, J. P. and T. Wry (2014), "Categorizing Categorization Research: Review, Integration, and Future Directions", Journal of Management Studies, 51(1), 56-94. https://doi.org/10.1111/joms.12044
  103. Verhoef, P. C., K. N. Lemon, A. Parasuraman, A. Roggeveen, M. Tsiros and L. A. Schlesinger (2009), "Customer Experience Creation, Determinants, Dynamics, and Management Strategies", Journal of Retailing, 85(1), 31-41. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jretai.2008.11.001
  104. Vidya, K. A. and G. Aghila (2010), "Text Mining Process, Techniques and Tools: an Overview", International Journal of Information Technology and Knowledge Management, 2(2), 613-622.
  105. Voss, P. Jr. (1984), "Status shifts to Peer Influence", Advertising Age, 17, 1-10.
  106. Weber, R. P. (1990), Basic Content Analysis (2nd ed.), Newbury Park, CA: Sage.
  107. Wickham, M. and M. Woods (2005), "Reflecting on the Strategic Use of CAQDAS to Manage and Report on the Qualitative Research Process", The Qualitative Report, 10(4), 687-702.
  108. Willems, K., G. Swinnen, W. Janssens and M. Brengman (2011), "Fashion store personality: scale development and relation to self-congruity theory", Journal of Global Fashion Marketing, 2(2), 55-65. https://doi.org/10.1080/20932685.2011.10593083