Acknowledgement
The author extends his appreciation to Prince Sattam Bin Abdulaziz University for funding this research work through the project number (PSAU/2022/02/21304).
References
- Balakrishnan, V., and Lay, G. Student's learning style and their effects on the use of social media technology for learning. Telematics and Informatics, 33, 808-821, (2016). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tele.2015.12.004
- Ha, L., Perez, A., and Ray, R. Mapping recent development in scholarship on fake news and misinformation, 2008 to 2017: Disciplinary contribution, topics, and impact. American Behavioral Scientist, vol. 65, no. 2, pp. 290-315, (2021). https://doi.org/10.1177/0002764219869402
- Thorne, S. L. The intercultural turn and language learning in the crucible of new media. In F. Helm & S. Guth (eds.), Telecollaboration 2.0 for Language and Intercultural Learning (pp. 139-164). Bern: Peter Lang, (2010).
- Guo, L., and Vargo, C. "Fake news" and emerging online media ecosystem. Communication Research, vol. 47, no. 2, pp. 178-200, (2020). https://doi.org/10.1177/0093650218777177
- Rice, R. E., Gustafson, A., and Hoffman, Z. Frequent but Accurate: A Closer Look at Uncertainty and Opinion Divergence in Climate Change Print News. Environmental Communication (12:3), pp. 301-321, (2018). https://doi.org/10.1080/17524032.2018.1430046
- Shane, S. The fake Americans Russia created to influence the election. from https://www.nytimes.com/2017/09/07/us/politics/russia-facebooktwitter-election.html, (2017)
- McGrath, G. Measuring the Concept of Credibility. Journalism Quarterly, 63, (3), pp. 12- 24, (1986). https://doi.org/10.1177/107769908606300102
- Shearer, E., and Mitchell, A. News use across social media platforms in 2020. London: Sage, (2021).
- Kirby, E. J. The city getting rich from fake news. BBC News, (2016).
- Maheshwari, S. 20th century fox gives real apology for a fake news campaign. The New York Times. Business Day, (2017).
- Azzimonti, M., and Fernandes, M. Social media networks, fake news, and polarization. National Bureau of Economic Research, vol. 45, no. 2, pp. 35-61, (2018).
- Weeks, B. de. Gil, and Zuniga, H. "What's next? Six observations for the future of political misinformation research," American Behavioral Scientist, vol. 65, no. 2, pp. 277-289, (2021). https://doi.org/10.1177/0002764219878236
- de la Garza, A. How social media is shaping our fears of and responses to the Coronavirus. Times, available at: https://time.come/5802802/social-media-coronavirus/ (Accessed: 22 September, 2022), (2020).
- Arias, E. How does media influence social norms? Experimental evidence on the role of common knowledge. Political Science Research and Methods, vol. 7, no.3, pp. 561-578, (2019). https://doi.org/10.1017/psrm.2018.1
- Zollmann, F. Bringing propaganda back into news media studies. Critical Sociology, vol. 45, no. 3, pp. 329-345, (2019). https://doi.org/10.1177/0896920517731134
- Vamanu, I. Fake news and propaganda: A critical discourse research perspective. Open Information Science, vol. 3, no. 1, pp. 197-208, (2019). https://doi.org/10.1515/opis-2019-0014
- Fairclough, N. Media discourse. Edward Arnold, London, (1995).
- Fowler, R. Language in the news: Discourse and ideology in the press. Routledge, New York, (1991).
- Koidl, K., and T. Matthews, Measuring impact of rumors messages in social media. NOBIDS, pp. 1-16, (2017).
- Lukasik, M., Cohn, T., and Bontcheva, K. Classifying tweet level judgments of rumors in social media. Hospital, vol. 796, no. 487, p. 132, (2015).
- Mendoza, M., Poblete, B., and Castillo, C. Twitter under crisis: can we trust what we write? Proceedings of the first workshop on social media analytics. ACM, pp. 71-79, (2010).
- Dwoskin, E., and Shaban, H. Facebook Will Now Ask Users to Rank News Organizations They Trust. The Washington Post, (2018).
- Dwoskin, E., and Timberg, C. How Merchants Use Facebook to Flood Amazon with Fake Reviews. The Washington Post, (2018).
- Roberts, D. Yelp's Fake Review Problem. Fortune magazine, (2013).
- Minas, R. K., Potter, R. F., Dennis, A. R., Bartelt, V. L., and Bae, S. Putting on the Thinking Cap: Using Neurois to Understand Information Processing Biases in Virtual Teams," Journal of Management Information Systems (30:4), pp. 49-82, (2014). https://doi.org/10.2753/MIS0742-1222300403
- Goyanes, M., Borah, P., and Gil de Zuniga, H. Social media filtering and democ- racy: Effects of social media news use and uncivil political discussions on social media unfriending," Computers in Human Behavior, vol. 120, pp. 106759, (2021). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2021.106759
- Bandura, A. Social cognitive theory of mass communication. Media Psychology, vol. 3, no. 3, pp. 265- 299, (2001). https://doi.org/10.1207/S1532785XMEP0303_03
- Barkho, L. Editorial policies and news discourse-how Al Jazeera's implicit guidelines shape its coverage of Middle East conflicts. Journalism, vol. 22, no. 6, pp. 1357-1374, (2021). https://doi.org/10.1177/1464884919841797
- Oh, O., Agrawal, M., and Rao, H. R. Community intelligence and social media services: A rumor theoretic analysis of tweets during social crises. Mis. Quarterly, vol. 37, no. 2, pp. 407-426, (2013). https://doi.org/10.25300/MISQ/2013/37.2.05
- Koidl, K., and Matthews, T. Measuring Impact of Rumors Messages in Social Media. NOBIDS, 1-16, (2017).
- Lee, S. Connecting social media use with gaps in knowledge and participation in a protest context: The case of candle light vigil in South Korea. Asian Journal of Communication, vol. 29, pp. 111-127, (2019). https://doi.org/10.1080/01292986.2018.1549264
- Lopes, A. R. The impact of social media on social movements: The new opportunity and mobilizing structure," Journal of Political Science Research, vol. 4, pp. 1-23, (2014).
- Lee, S., and Xenos, M. Social distraction? Social media use and political knowledge in two US presidential elections. Computers in Human Behavior, vol. 90, pp. 18-25, (2019). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2018.08.006
- Rogers, R., and Niederer, S. The politics of social media manipulation. in R. Rogers and S. Niederer (Eds.), The politics of Social Media Manipulation. Amestrdam University Press, 2020, 19-70, (2020).
- Repoll, S. Social dimension of the COVID-19 outbreak in China and beyond. Institute of Development Studies, available at: https://www.ids.ac.uk/news/ids-researchers-attend-world-healthorganization/.(Accessed:20 September, 2022), (2020).
- Toendan, W. Research methods. Palangka Raya: University of Palangka Raya, (2013).
- Jones, M. O. The gulf information war propaganda, fake news, and fake trends: The weaponization of twitter bots in the gulf crisis. International journal of communication, vol. 13, pp. 27, (2019).
- Khafaga, A. F. A computational approach to explore the extremist ideologies of Daesh discourse". International Journal of Advanced Computer Science and Applications, vol. 11, no. 8, pp. 193-199, (2020).
- Fowler, R., Hodge, B., Kress, G., and Trew, T. Language and control. Routledge, (2018).
- Allcott, H., and Gentzkow, M. "Social media and fake news in the 2016 election," Journal of economic perspectives, vol. 31, no. 2, pp. 211-36, (2017). https://doi.org/10.1257/jep.31.2.211
- Khafaga, A., Strategies of political persuasion in literary genres: A computational approach to critical discourse analysis. Germany: LAMBERT Publication, (2017).
- Wilson, T. D., and Walsh, C. Information behavior: An interdisciplinary perspective. Sheffield: University of Sheffield Department of Information Studies." Available at: http://informationr.net/tdw/publ/infbehav/cont.html (Accessed: 19 October, 2022), (1996).
- Khafaga, A., Linguistic manipulation of political myth in Margaret Atwood's The Handmaid's Tale. International Journal of English Linguistics, 7(3), 189-200, (2017). https://doi.org/10.5539/ijel.v7n3p189
- van Dijk, T. A., Ideology and discourse analysis. Journal of Political Ideologies, 11(2), pp. 115-140, (2006). https://doi.org/10.1080/13569310600687908
- Sornig, K., Some remarks on linguistic strategies of persuasion, in Wodak, R. (Ed.), Language, power and ideology: Studies in political discourse. John Benjamins Publishing Company, pp. 95-113, (1989).
- Khafaga, A., Linguistic representation of power in Edward Bond's Lear: A lexico-pragmatic approach to critical discourse analysis. International Journal of English Linguistics, 9(6), 404-420, (2019). https://doi.org/10.5539/ijel.v9n6p404