• Journal of the Korean association of regional geographers
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• v.6 no.3
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• pp.53-81
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• 2000

The purpose of this study is to examine the chracteristics of the location of Zen Buddhist temples which are the Nine-Mountain Sects of Zen(九山禪門) from feng-shui perspective. A large number of temples have been built for about 1600 years since Buddhism had influenced on Korea. They have been built nationwide in different times by different sects of Buddhism. The pattern of location of Buddhist temples is different according to background of the times (political, economic, cultural aspect) and of tenet(difference in sects of Buddhism) when the temples were built. But the general location of Korean Buddhist temples is in accordance with feng-shui theory. Feng-shui is a traditional geographic thought in China and Korea. It is necessary to understand feng-shui in order to understand Korean landscape and cultural geography. It had given a tremendous impact on Korean landscape through choosing site of cities, settlements, houses, mounments, temples, pagodas, and so on. Before feng-shui was prevailing in Korea, Buddhist temples were mostly built on sacred place which was connected with folk beliefs. In the case of the late Silla Dynasty when Zen Buddhism was prevailing, feng-shui became popular and many. temples were built in accordance with feng-shui. The typical examples are found in the site of Nine-Mountain Sects of Zen temples. The interpretation of geomantic site of Nine-Mountain Sects of Zen temples will show us how feng-shui was applied to and reflected in the Korean peninsula. In Zen Buddhism, feng-shui was applied to the choice of the temple site. Also feng-shui theory was usually used to choose the site of stupa(Budo) where the remains of the founder of sect. In this study, I will interpret the geomantic characteristics of Nine-Mountain Sects of Zen temples. The geomantic interpretations of the temples are as follow. 1. The temples are located at the foot of a hill with surrounding mountains and a watercourse in front. Feng-shui texts often describe it as an ideal site. This geomantic situation is well equipped with natural drainage; protection from cold wind from the north or evil spirits; a good view with open space to the front; protection from unnecessary weather damage; and security and protection from strangers and invaders. 2. The sitting and facing direction of the temples correspond to the oncoming dragon's direction. 3. Many feng-shui texts discuss the types of Sa(surrounding mountains) in detail and morphologically describe them with certain animate and inanimate auspicious objects. In case of Nine-Mountain Sects of Zen temples, the geomantic landscape of these can be compared to auspicious objects. This is morphological marker for the description of configulation features of these temples. 4. Most auspicious places are not perfect, but the shortcomings can be overcome by many means. We can observe modification of landscape for the purpose of fulfilling the geomantic harmony of the temple.

• Journal of Korean Society of Coastal and Ocean Engineers
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• v.19 no.5
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• pp.492-501
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• 2007

Coastal disasters have become one of the most important issues in every coastal country. In Korea, coastal disasters such as storm surge, sea level rise and extreme weather have placed many coastal regions in danger of being exposed or damaged during subsequent storms and gradual shoreline retreat. A storm surge is an onshore gush of water associated with a tow pressure weather system, typically in typhoon season. However, it is very difficult to predict storm surge height and inundation due to the irregularity of the course and intensity of a typhoon. To provide a new scheme of typhoon damage prediction model, the scenario which changes the central pressure, the maximum wind radius, the track and the proceeding speed by corresponding previous typhoon database, was composed. The virtual typhoon scenario database was constructed with individual scenario simulation and evaluation, in which it extracted the result from the scenario database of information of the hereafter typhoon and information due to climate change. This virtual typhoon scenario database will apply damage prediction information about a typhoon. This study performed construction and analysis of the simulation system with the storm surge/coastal inundation model at Masan coastal areas, and applied method for predicting using the scenario of the storm surge.

• KOREAN JOURNAL OF CROP SCIENCE
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• v.55 no.4
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• pp.327-332
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• 2010

This study was conducted to overcome the deliciousness by sex reversal in hemp plants. When female plants grown under long day length condition were transferred to short day length condition in 3th and 6th leaf stage, a few male flowers were formed and the gap of flowering days between sex reversed male and normal female flowers were around 10 days and 3 days, respectively. Although the flowering amounts were small, this short gaps of flowering days were enough for artificial pollination. When female plants grown under long day length condition were transferred to short day length condition just after treatment of silver nitrate in the vegetative stage, a great amount of male flower was formed and the gap of flowering days between sex reversed male and normal female flowers were only 1 to 3 days. The increased sex reversed male flowers and induced short gap of flowering days were adequate for natural wind pollination. When female seeds were cultivated, seed yield was 141 kg/10a, while it was 96 kg/10a when normal seeds cultivated.

• Korean Journal of Environmental Agriculture
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• v.35 no.4
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• pp.286-293
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• 2016

BACKGROUND: 18% of difenoconazole+iminoctadin triacetate microemulsion (3%+15%) formulation were mixed and sprayed as closely as possible to normal practice on the ten of farms located in the Youngju of South Korea. Patches, cotton gloves, socks, masks and XAD-2 resin were used to measure the potential exposure for applicators wearing standardized whole-body outer and inner dosimeter (WBD). This study has been carried out to determine the dermal and inhalation exposure to difenoconazole during preparation of spray suspension and application with a power sprayer on a grape orchard. METHODS AND RESULTS: A personal air monitor equipped with an air pump IOM sampler and cassette and glass fiber filter were used for inhalation exposure. The field studies were carried out in a grape orchard. The temperature and relative humidity were monitored with a thermometer and a hygrometer. Wind speed was measured using a pocket weather meter. All mean field fortification recoveries were between 97.3% and 119.6% in the level of 100 LOQ (limit of quantification) while the LOQ for difenoconazole was $0.025{\mu}g/mL$ using HPLC-UVD. The arms exposure to difenoconazole for the mixer/loader (0.0794 mg) was higher than other body parts (head, hands, upper body, legs). The exposure to difenoconazole in the legs for applicator (3.78 mg) was highest in the parts of body. The dermal exposure for mixer/loader and applicator were 0.02 and 2.28 mg on a grape orchard, respectively. The inhalation exposure during application was estimated as 0.02 mg. The ratio of inhalation exposure to dermal exposure was equivalent to 0.9% of the dermal exposure. CONCLUSION: The inhalation exposure for applicator indicated $18.8{\times}10^{-3}mg$, which was level of 0.9% of the dermal exposure (2.28 mg). Operator exposure (0.004 mg/kg bw/day) to difenoconazole during treatment for grape is calculated as 2.5% of the established AOEL (0.16 mg/kg bw/day).

• Journal of Korean Society for Atmospheric Environment
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• v.34 no.1
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• pp.38-55
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• 2018

Hourly measurements of $PM_{2.5}$ mass, organic and elemental carbon (OC and EC), and water-soluble ionic species were made at the air quality intensive monitoring stations in Baengryeongdo (BR) and Seoul (SL) during the winter (December 01~31, 2013) and summer (July 10~23, 2014) periods, to investigate the increase of $PM_{2.5}$ and secondary ionic species and the reasons leading to their increase during the two seasons. During winter, $PM_{2.5}$ and its major chemical species concentrations were higher at SL than at BR. Contribution of organic mass to $PM_{2.5}$ was approximately 1.7 times higher at BR than at SL, but the $NO_3{^-}$ contribution was two times higher at SL. Total concentration of secondary ionic species ($SO{_4}^{2-}$, $NO_3{^-}$, and $NH_4{^+}$) at BR and SL sites accounted for 29.1 and 40.1% of $PM_{2.5}$, respectively. However, during summer, no significant difference in chemical composition of $PM_{2.5}$ was found between the two sites with the exception of $SO{_4}^{2-}$. Total concentration of the secondary ionic species constituted on average 43.9% of $PM_{2.5}$ at BR and 53.0% at SL. A noticeable difference in chemical composition between the two sites during summer was attributed to $SO{_4}^{2-}$, with approximately twofold concentration and 10% higher contribution in SL. Low wind speed and high relative humidity were important factors in secondary formation of water-soluble ionic species during winter at SL, resulting in $PM_{2.5}$ increase. While the secondary formation during summer was attributed to strong photochemical processes in daytime and high relative humidity in nighttime hours. The increase of $PM_{2.5}$ and its secondary ionic species during the winter haze pollution period at SL was mainly caused either by long-range transport (LTP) from the eastern Chinese regions, or by local pollution. However, the increased $SO{_4}^{2-}$ and $NO_3{^-}$ during summer at SL were mainly caused by LTP, photochemical processes in daytime hours, and heterogeneous processes in nighttime hours.

• Journal of Environmental Impact Assessment
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• v.24 no.5
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• pp.456-471
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• 2015

Emission source term is one of the strong controlling factors for the air quality simulation capability, particularly over the urban area. Ulsan is an industrial area and frequently required to simulate for environmental assessment. In this study, two CAPSS (Clean Air Policy Support System) emission data; CAPSS-2003 and CAPSS-2010 in Ulsan, were employed as an input data for WRF-CMAQ air quality model for emission assessment. The simulated results were compared with observations for the local emission dominant synoptic conditions which had negative vorticities and lower geostrophic wind speed at 850hPa weather maps. The measurements of CO, $NO_2$, $SO_2$ and $PM_{10}$ concentrations were compared with simulations and the 'scaling factors' of emissions for CO, $NO_2$, $SO_2$, and $PM_{10}$ were suggested in in aggregative and quantitative manner. The results showed that CAPSS-2003 showed no critical discrepancies of CO and $NO_2$ observations with simulations, while $SO_2$ was overestimated by a factor of more than 12, while $PM_{10}$ was underestimated by a factor of more than 20 times. However, CAPSS-2010 case showed that $SO_2$ and $PM_{10}$ emission were much more improved than CAPSS-2003. However, $SO_2$ was still overestimated by a factor of more than 2, and $PM_{10}$ underestimated by a factor of 5, while there was no significant improvement for CO and $NO_2$ emission. The estimated factors identified in this study can be used as'scaling factors'for optimizing the emissions of air pollutants, particularly $SO_2$ and $PM_{10}$ for the realistic air quality simulation in Ulsan.

• Journal of Science of Art and Design
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• v.9
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• pp.5-24
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• 2006

Human hunted and picked to survive and a vessel was made naturally to store something being hunted and picket, which was a great invention. In modern times, society changed and development of science gave us convenience in making a vessel and various kinds of store instruments which was made of pure natural material, of new stuff, such as plastic and iron. but human became to be inclined to regress into nature because of problems of environment. We can say that the representative trend is well-being, after all this is a symptom to return to life being persued by predecessors before the science civilization was developed. Ancestors have lived with nature, adapted themselves to it. For examples they have built the house which became to be a part of nature and just like it, and studied a method of storing food to eat for four seasons, then displayed a storagehouse and storage containers everywhere of the house. Now Korean has the custody of kimchi in refrigerator at every house, but our forefathers controled a timing to eat food with studying a method of storage to put to use nature. With hot wind of well-being, Korean food is becoming to be globalized, according to this, concern about the wisdom of progenitors is growing more and more. It's an example that the world shows concern seriously about the pottery, which have stored kimchi for a long time fleshly, in globalization of kimchi. This study have three purposes, the first. checking documents about the development history of pottery which is a kind of ceramic, and then the second, through an scientific experiment, with studying characteristic of pottery being built by the wisdom of ancestors, informing the merit of pottery and necessity to the world, and futhermore, the third, working up the development of close environmental vessels putting to use the characteristic of pottery.

• The Journal of Korean Medical History
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• v.18 no.2
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• pp.197-227
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• 2005

Heojun was the top scientist on Medicine in the 16th and 17th centuries and wrote the Dongeubogam describing the top-level medical theory and technology. So far, his outlook on nature has been disregarded even though his medicine is still effective. Through this study, I would like to know if his outlook on nature as well as his medicine is still effective. The conclusions are as follows: 1. According to his output, the origin of the universe started from the spinning of One Gi(一氣) which is quite different from Hawking's theory. Hawking assumed that the origin of the universe started from the Big-bang and will end to the Big-crunch. However, the current report on the origin of a star is quite similar to Heojun's theory and we acknowledge that his view on the origin of the universe is still effective. 2. According to his output, the universe repeats expanding and contracting forever while Hawking assumed it will come to the end, the Big-crunch, based on the expanding universe theory. Some scientists assists that Hawking's assumption should have some contradictions. Now, we acknowledge that Heojun's universal cycling theory which corresponds with modern physical theories is still effective, which would lead to a new environmental movement. 3. His view on the structure of the universe is quite different from the output of the current science, which results from his thought that the nature should be reviewed from the point of human's view. His view on the structure will be able to be updated based on the output of the current science. 4. The universe analogy started from the East Asian area as well as the Greek and Roman area in the ancient. The idea has disappeared since the scientific revolution era in the West while the idea has been deepened and abundant in the East and has become one of the major philosophical bases. Heojun emphasized its importance from the beginning of his book. 5. The nation analogy has been popular all times and places. According to his output, governing a country is like controlling one's body. 6. According to Needham's output, the universe analogy and the nation analogy were based on the ancient developed alchemy. And Harper assumed that Taiosm was based on the macrobiotic hygiene which was developed by the ancient developed alchemists. We acknowledge that xian(仙) cult, macrobiotic hygiene, medicine, alchemy and the ancient philosophy started from our ancients. Heojun's output restored our ancient tradition by combining the macrobiotic hygiene and philosophy with medicine. 7. Roughly predicting yearly weather would be unacceptable by the current scientist but Heojun's yearly weather forecast is still used in the clinic and seems effective to prepare from any epidemic disease. 8. 'Day and Night' and Four seasons are the most important factors to the macrobiotic hygiene according to the Dongeubogam. The new environmental movements should be based on the most important factors, otherwise the human beings as well as the environment would fail to survive. 9. Wind, Coldness, Heat, Humidity, Dryness and Fire represents weather. The six weather factors represent one of six phases of a year which is decided by the areal factors. Heojun preferred the six factors generated in the body itself to them from the outside. He thought a human being was a universe and the six factors generated in the body responded to the factors of the outside. 10. According to his output, Heat and Humidity are the most important factors which make a human being ill. 11. Life span, disease, food, and dwelling are dependent upon the geographical feature, according to Heojun's output. In addition, one's appearance and his five viscera and the six entrails depend on the food as well as the geographical feature. 12. Heath is related with the environment and they effects upon each other. If one is weak, he will be deeply effected by the nature. On the other hand, if one is strong, he will effect on the nature. That's why people live together. 13. According to Heojun's work, the society is an important factor comprising the environment. During a peaceful era, the society becomes stable and human beings are stable as well while they will be on fire during a chaotic era. 14. Medicine deals with human beings who live in the nature, so any medical book cannot be excellent unless it has any description on the nature. Heojun's outlook on the nature turned out to be logical and suitable even from the point of the current view and it is still effective as if his clinical knowledge and technology are still effective. Something unsuitable may be substituted with the output of the current science.

• Fire Science and Engineering
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• v.25 no.4
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• pp.8-21
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• 2011

This study surveyed historical records on outbreak and features of forest fires during Chosun Dynasty's 518 years in being and analyzed the Annals of the Chosun Dynasty; The Diaries of the Royal Secretariat, archives from Records of the Border Defense Council, The Compilation of Ministry Proposals, Posthumous Records of King Cholchong etc. Forest fires were most prevalent and extreme during King Hyunjong (14 cases) and King Sunjo (13 cases) due to strong wind, and the biggest-ever forest fire broke out in the fourth year of King Soonjo (1804) in the east coast of Korea in Kangwon province. The fire had resulted in 61 fatalities and 2,600 destroyed houses. Forest fire in the east coast of Korea, Kangwon province, in the $13^{th}$ year of King Hyeonjong (1672) is recorded to have caused the highest number of deaths, 65people. The most frequent cause of forest fires during Chosun Dynasty was unidentified (42 cases), followed by accidental fire (10 cases), arson or lightning (3 cases), fire during hunting (2 cases), play with fire by children, destruction of patty fields and dry fields by fire and house fire (1 case respectively). By region, 56 % of forest fires erupted in the east coast (39 cases) and this was followed by the west sea (9 cases), Seoul and central region (8 cases) and the southern part of Korea (7 cases). By season, spring was found to be most vulnerable to forest fire as it accounted for 73 % of the total amounting to 46 cases. Behind were summer (11 cases), winter (6 cases) and autumn (0 case). Specifically, most forest fire broke out on April and May, which is the same as today. Archives and literature indicate that the person who involved in forest fire by accidental as well as arson had to be punished by banishment, expulsion from government office and public hanging. Also, officials in charge of the region that suffered forest fire were subject to reprimand. In conclusion, risk and gravity of forest fires were evident during the Chosun Dynasty as specified in historical archives and share many similarities with today's forest fires in terms of the duration and regional patterns.

• Korean Journal of Agricultural and Forest Meteorology
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• v.2 no.1
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• pp.1-8
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• 2000

The objectives of this study were to investigate weather conditions which induced discolored grains and viviparous germination, and to evaluate yield responses following viviparous germination during mid- and late- ripening stage, the submergence during reproductive growth stage, and lodging in the yellow ripe stage. Weather conditions which caused glume discoloration at heading stage were 21.3-26.4$^{\circ}C$ in average temperature, 75.2-98.4% in relative humidity, 19.3 in transpiration coefficient and 10.8-13.8 m/sec. in wind speed. Yield reduction was 26-27% and 10~17%, respectively, when the glume discoloration rates were 63.2-65.7% and 38.3-45.2%, obviously due to the decrease in percent of fertile grain and ripening ratio. Weather conditions during continuous rain for 7 days were 96% in relative humidity, 18.9$^{\circ}C$ in average temperature, 21.9$^{\circ}C$ in maximum temperature, and 16.8$^{\circ}C$ in minimum temperature, causing the most viviparous germination in Juanbyeo(45.5%), followed by Jinbubyeo(14.5%), Bongkwangbyeo(14.2%), and Obongbyeo(12.6%). Lateral tillers started to occur when the submergence at the depth of 1.5-2 m lasted one day during the reproductive growth stage. The submergence for 2-3 days at 3-4 m of water depth induced 269-571 lateral tillers/m$^2$, supporting 32-52% of the total yield. The rice yield in the paddy fields which were left under the lodging conditions until harvesting was not different compared to that of the paddy fields which were kept upright by tieing them together after lodging, but perfect grain ratio decreased about 9.1% in the transplanting culture and 12.5% in the direct seeding culture on dry paddy field because of the increase in immature grains.