• Journal of Global Scholars of Marketing Science
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• v.20 no.3
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• pp.231-238
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• 2010

The anthropomorphism of brands, defined as seeing human beings in brands (Puzakova, Kwak, and Rosereto, 2008) is the focus of this study. Specifically, the research objective is to understand the ways in which brands are rendered humanlike. By analyzing consumer readings of stories found on food product packages we intend to show how marketers and consumers humanize a spectrum of brands and create meanings. Our research question considers the possibility that a single brand may host multiple or single meanings, associations, and personalities for different consumers. We start by highlighting the theoretical and practical significance of our research, explain why we turn our attention to packages as vehicles of brand meaning transfer, then describe our qualitative methodology, discuss findings, and conclude with a discussion of managerial implications and directions for future studies. The study was designed to directly expose consumers to potential vehicles of brand meaning transfer and then engage these consumers in free verbal reflections on their perceived meanings. Specifically, we asked participants to read non-nutritional stories on selected branded food packages, in order to elicit data about received meanings. Packaging has yet to receive due attention in consumer research (Hine, 1995). Until now, attention has focused solely on its utilitarian function and has generated a body of research that has explored the impact of nutritional information and claims on consumer perceptions of products (e.g., Loureiro, McCluskey and Mittelhammer, 2002; Mazis and Raymond, 1997; Nayga, Lipinski and Savur, 1998; Wansik, 2003). An exception is a recent study that turns its attention to non-nutritional packaging narratives and treats them as cultural productions and vehicles for mythologizing the brand (Kniazeva and Belk, 2007). The next step in this stream of research is to explore how such mythologizing activity affects brand personality perception and how these perceptions relate to consumers. These are the questions that our study aimed to address. We used in-depth interviews to help overcome the limitations of quantitative studies. Our convenience sample was formed with the objective of providing demographic and psychographic diversity in order to elicit variations in consumer reflections to food packaging stories. Our informants represent middle-class residents of the US and do not exhibit extreme alternative lifestyles described by Thompson as "cultural creatives" (2004). Nine people were individually interviewed on their food consumption preferences and behavior. Participants were asked to have a look at the twelve displayed food product packages and read all the textual information on the package, after which we continued with questions that focused on the consumer interpretations of the reading material (Scott and Batra, 2003). On average, each participant reflected on 4-5 packages. Our in-depth interviews lasted one to one and a half hours each. The interviews were tape recorded and transcribed, providing 140 pages of text. The products came from local grocery stores on the West Coast of the US and represented a basic range of food product categories, including snacks, canned foods, cereals, baby foods, and tea. The data were analyzed using procedures for developing grounded theory delineated by Strauss and Corbin (1998). As a result, our study does not support the notion of one brand/one personality as assumed by prior work. Thus, we reveal multiple brand personalities peacefully cohabiting in the same brand as seen by different consumers, despite marketer attempts to create more singular brand personalities. We extend Fournier's (1998) proposition, that one's life projects shape the intensity and nature of brand relationships. We find that these life projects also affect perceived brand personifications and meanings. While Fournier provides a conceptual framework that links together consumers’ life themes (Mick and Buhl, 1992) and relational roles assigned to anthropomorphized brands, we find that consumer life projects mold both the ways in which brands are rendered humanlike and the ways in which brands connect to consumers' existential concerns. We find two modes through which brands are anthropomorphized by our participants. First, brand personalities are created by seeing them through perceived demographic, psychographic, and social characteristics that are to some degree shared by consumers. Second, brands in our study further relate to consumers' existential concerns by either being blended with consumer personalities in order to connect to them (the brand as a friend, a family member, a next door neighbor) or by distancing themselves from the brand personalities and estranging them (the brand as a used car salesman, a "bunch of executives.") By focusing on food product packages, we illuminate a very specific, widely-used, but little-researched vehicle of marketing communication: brand storytelling. Recent work that has approached packages as mythmakers, finds it increasingly challenging for marketers to produce textual stories that link the personalities of products to the personalities of those consuming them, and suggests that "a multiplicity of building material for creating desired consumer myths is what a postmodern consumer arguably needs" (Kniazeva and Belk, 2007). Used as vehicles for storytelling, food packages can exploit both rational and emotional approaches, offering consumers either a "lecture" or "drama" (Randazzo, 2006), myths (Kniazeva and Belk, 2007; Holt, 2004; Thompson, 2004), or meanings (McCracken, 2005) as necessary building blocks for anthropomorphizing their brands. The craft of giving birth to brand personalities is in the hands of writers/marketers and in the minds of readers/consumers who individually and sometimes idiosyncratically put a meaningful human face on a brand.

• Journal of Distribution Science
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• v.10 no.2
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• pp.29-41
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• 2012

This paper undertakes a conceptual review of transaction cost to broaden the understanding of the transaction cost analysis (TCA) approach. More than 40 years have passed since Coase's fundamental insight that transaction, coordination, and contracting costs must be considered explicitly in explaining the extent of vertical integration. Coase (1937) forced economists to identify previously neglected constraints on the trading process to foster efficient intrafirm, rather than interfirm, transactions. The transaction cost approach to economic organization study regards transactions as the basic units of analysis and holds that understanding transaction cost economy is central to organizational study. The approach applies to determining efficient boundaries, as between firms and markets, and to internal transaction organization, including employment relations design. TCA, developed principally by Oliver Williamson (1975,1979,1981a) blends institutional economics, organizational theory, and contract law. Further progress in transaction costs research awaits the identification of critical dimensions in which transaction costs differ and an examination of the economizing properties of alternative institutional modes for organizing transactions. The crucial investment distinction is: To what degree are transaction-specific (non-marketable) expenses incurred? Unspecialized items pose few hazards, since buyers can turn toalternative sources, and suppliers can sell output intended for one order to other buyers. Non-marketability problems arise when specific parties' identities have important cost-bearing consequences. Transactions of this kind are labeled idiosyncratic. The summarized results of the review are as follows. First, firms' distribution decisions often prompt examination of the make-or-buy question: Should a marketing activity be performed within the organization by company employees or contracted to an external agent? Second, manufacturers introducing an industrial product to a foreign market face a difficult decision. Should the product be marketed primarily by captive agents (the company sales force and distribution division) or independent intermediaries (outside sales agents and distribution)? Third, the authors develop a theoretical extension to the basic transaction cost model by combining insights from various theories with the TCA approach. Fourth, other such extensions are likely required for the general model to be applied to different channel situations. It is naive to assume the basic model appliesacross markedly different channel contexts without modifications and extensions. Although this study contributes to scholastic research, it is limited by several factors. First, the theoretical perspective of TCA has attracted considerable recent interest in the area of marketing channels. The analysis aims to match the properties of efficient governance structures with the attributes of the transaction. Second, empirical evidence about TCA's basic propositions is sketchy. Apart from Anderson's (1985) study of the vertical integration of the selling function and John's (1984) study of opportunism by franchised dealers, virtually no marketing studies involving the constructs implicated in the analysis have been reported. We hope, therefore, that further research will clarify distinctions between the different aspects of specific assets. Another important line of future research is the integration of efficiency-oriented TCA with organizational approaches that emphasize specific assets' conceptual definition and industry structure. Finally, research of transaction costs, uncertainty, opportunism, and switching costs is critical to future study.

• Korean Journal of Psychosomatic Medicine
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• v.8 no.2
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• pp.212-227
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• 2000

This study was designed to testify the reliability and validation on the Korean version of the Social Adaptation Self-rating Scale(SASS) which was developed from Bose et al. for the evaluation of social motivation and behavior of depressed patients in 1997. Interests for the social world, those of social functioning, of patients were involved in the addition of new measure of disturbance. And those were distinct from abnormalities of thought, mood and symptoms of patients with major depression. As the previous reports there were several evidences that treatments may be less likely to be effective if the system they act on is dysfunctional. Thus, a better social situation favoured better outcome. As a matter of fact, however, those reports were developed in the course of the evaluation of interpersonal therapy(IPT) and cognitive therapy. Accordingly the conversed question -whether pharmacological therapy with antidepressants can impact on social functioning in addition to addressing the core features of illness- has been addressed. To date, anyhow, it is accepted that enhancement of social functioning may be a therapeutic principle in its own right and illness rarely divorced from social context. In terms of those concepts the introduction of an assessment of social functioning into pharmacotherapeutic studies of depression has been welcomed and might be a potent instrument for evaluating the relative pharmacoeconomic benefits of different treatments. Despite of many scales which were applied for the evaluation of symptoms in the patients with depression, however, the scale for the evaluation of social functiong has not been introduced in Korea yet. Thus, this study was designed to introduce the concepts of social functioning in the patients with depression and to testify the reliability and validation on Korean version of SASS. This Korean version of SASS was submitted to a reliability and validation procedure based on the data from healthy general population survey in 291 individuals and 40 patients with major depression. Cronbach a was 0.790 in total subjects group and the correlation of test-retest was statistically significant(y=0.653, p<0.0l). Thus, the Korean version of SASS might be shown to be valid and reliable. The results of multivariate analyses allowed the identification of 3 principle factors(factor 1 = intersts in social activities, factor 2 = active interpersonal relationship, factor 3 = selfesteem) in normal group, however, it could be counted as only one factor in the depression group because nearly total items of SASS were involved in factor 1. In the view of these results, the Korean version of SASS may be useful additional tool for the evaluation of social functioning in depression.

• Journal of the Korean Society of School Health
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• v.4 no.2
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• pp.119-135
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• 1991

The study was designed to gain necessary basic data order to grasp health knowledge, attitude, practice level of middle and high school students and to analyse th problem and to point out the method of improvement in the field of school health education. The survery was carried out through this reporter's interview for 2,400 students who attend to ten schools in Young Nam area during the period of a month from 25 the June to 25th July 1989. The result of this study can be summaried as follows. 1. The total number of answers on the question was 2,346. As for general characteristics the percent of female middle school students was 60.6% and the percent of male students was 77.7%, 45.9% of high school students was evening school students. 52.9% of middle school students and 42.3% of high school students were borne in rural area. 2. The percentage of unknown and misunderstanding for Epidemic Hepatitis infection was 46.3% of middle school students and 29.6% of high school students. 3. The percentage of unknown and misunderstanding for Epidemic Hemorrhage fever infection was 85.6% of middle school students and 66.9% of high school students. 4. The percentage of right knowledge for AIDS infection was 66.0% of middle school students and 90.4% of high school students. 5. The percentage of right knowledge for Typhoid infection was 47.8% of middle school students and 69.4% of high school students. 6. The percentage of unknown and misunderstanding for Tuberculosis infection was 71.6% of middle school students and 62.2% of high school students. 7. As for personal hygiene, the percentage of toothbrushing after every meal was high level : 44.2% of middle school students and 42.0% of high school students. 8. 60.9% of middle school students take a bath twice a week, 49.2% oh high school students take a bath a week. Times of bath of middle school students was higher than that of high school students. 9.The percentage of washing hand after using toilet was 42.1% of middle school students and 35.1% of high school students. 49.0% of middle school students and 55.1% of high school students wash hand sometimes after using toilet. 10. The percentage of change of underwear twice a week was 57.6% of middle school students and 49.8% of high school students. 11. The percentage of habit of unbalanced diet was 30.% of middle school students and 27.6% of high school students. 50.8% of middle school students and 51.7% of high school students have balanced diet. 12. Index of health practice of personal hygiene can be summarized as follows. A. A case of middle school students. 1) The percentage of health practice index in male and female was 49.6% and 48.1% respectively. Index of female students was higher than that of male students. 2) As for parent's occupation, public servants and company emplyee was upper level. Farming was low level. 3) As for income level, middle, level with 56.5% was highest in high income level and low level with 27.4% was highest in low income level. B. A case of high school students. 1) Middle level of health practice index was 46.0% of male students, upper and low level was 32.4% and 28.0% of female students respectively. 2) Middle level of health practice index was high in farming and company employee and upper level was high in commerce and service, low level with 60.0% was high in unemployed. 3) Upper practice index 35.7% appears in the rich and low practice index 38.3% appears in the poor. 13. Average points of Health practice about personal hygiene were as follows. (Full marks at 4). A. A case of middle school. Female (1.87 point) was higher than male (1.26 point). Night time (2.03 point) was higher than day time (1.66 point) and middle or small cities (2.17 point) are high than any other places. As for parent's occupation, students whose parents are company clerk get high marks (2.32) and ten students whose parent's job are service get next high marks (2.20). B. A case of high school. Female (1.53 point) was higher than male (1.22 point), as parents educational level were higher the point were higher, and as income level was higher, the points of health practice (1.78) were higher, and as for parents occupation, service get highest point (1.93) and commerce get next high point (1.86) public servant get low point (1.66). 14. The percentage of experience in smoking was 11.9% of middle school students and 60.9% of high school students. 15. The percentage of experience in inhalation of bond and administrating LSD was 4.3% of male middle school students, 8.4% of female middle school students, 6.9% of male high school students and 4.2% of female high school students. The knowledge level of communicable disease infection are very low in middle and high school students and practice level of personal hygiene are also very low. As a whole we can evaluate that middle and high school students are low level of health knowledge and practice. In conclusion, we must consider preparation for school health education program through establishing of health subjects in the carriculum, and securing of health education teachers and using materials and media program of health education. It is very important to establish macroscopic policy and strategy for public health education and to get people have right knowledge and practice for health.

• Journal of Korean Home Economics Education Association
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• v.20 no.4
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• pp.19-42
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• 2008

The purpose of this study was to develop practical problem-based home economics teaching.learning process plans about a unit 'the youth and consumer life' of middle school eighth-grade Technology and Home Economics by applying blended learning(BL) strategy. According to ADDIE instructional design model, this study was conducted in the following procedure: analysis, design/development, implementation, and evaluation. In the stage of design and development, the selected unit was converted into a practical problem-based unit, and practical problem-based teaching. learning process plans were designed in detail by using BL strategy. An online study room for practical problem-based home economics instruction grounded in BL strategy was prepared by using Edunet(http://community.edunet4u.net/${\sim}$consumer2). Eight-session lesson plans were mapped out, and study aids for students and materials for teachers were prepared. In the implementation stage, the first-session teaching plans that dealt with a minor question 'what preparations should be made to become a wise consumer' were utilized when instruction was provided to 115 eighth graders who were in three different province, and the other one was in a middle school in the city of Daejeon. The experimental teaching was implemented for two weeks in the following procedure: preliminary program, pre-online learning, main instruction and post- online learning. The preliminary program was carried out in a session in the classroom, and pre-online learning was provided before the main instruction was given in a session in the classroom. After the main instruction was completed, post-online learning was offered. In the evaluation stage, a survey was conducted on all the learners and teachers to find out their opinions and suggestions.

• Radiation Oncology Journal
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• v.22 no.2
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• pp.106-114
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• 2004

Purpose : This study was done to evaluate xerostomia fellowing intensity modulated radiotherapy for patients with head and neck cancer, and to analyze the correlation between the dosimetric parameters and xerostomia parameters. Materials and Methods : From February till October 2003, 13 patients with 3 months of follow-up were evaluated for xerostomia after being treated for head and neck cancer with IMRT. Their median age was 57 years(range: 43$\~$77). Xerostomia were assessed with a 4-question xerostomia questionnaire score (XQS) and a test for salivary flow rates (unstimulated and stimulated). The patients were also given a validated LENT SOMA scale (LSC) questionnaire. The evaluations were completed before radiation therapy (pre-RT) and at 1 and, 3 months after radiation therapy (RT). We evaluated xerostomia at pre-RT, 1 and, 3 months after RT. The association between the xerostomia parameters (XQS and LSC) and salivary flow rates (unstimulated and stimulated: USFR and SSFR) was assessed at 1 and 3 months after RT. Resrlts : All 13 patients showed no significant changes in XQS, LSC and Salivary Flow rates. As a result, we couldn't find out about xerostomia development. Based on the total mean parotid dose, 3,500 cGy, we divided these patients into two groups. The 8 patients (<3,500 cGy) showed no significant changes in XQS, LSC and Salivary Flow rates However, in 5 Patients ($\geq$3,500 cOGy), there was a significant increase in USFR and, SSFR at 3 months after RT, and for the XQS and, LSC at 1 and 3 months after RT. The correlation between XQS and, LSC, and USFR and, SSFR in ail patients (13) was significant at 3 months after RT. The correlation had a tendency to the decrease for USFR and, SSFR in proportion to the increase of XQS and, LSC. Conclusion : Based on the results of this study, IMRT seem to be an effective treatment to significantly decrease the xerostomia. XQS and, LSC seem to be a effective tool for predicting the xerostomia. A total parotid gland mean dose of <3,500 cGy should be a planning goal if substantial sparing of the gland function is desired. Furthermore, patients should be enrolled in a study to define a more accurate threshold dose for the parotid gland.

• Journal of Society of Preventive Korean Medicine
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• v.5 no.2
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• pp.40-68
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• 2001

In this study, grade of subjective symptom appealed by laborer of Jeollabuk-do was evaluated using questionary regarding factor made effect on musculoskeletal disease and in addition, studied relationship with health promotion life style of them. Based on the result, relationship of general characteristics of musculoskeletal subjective symptom and life-style of the subjects was concluded as below. 1. General characteristics of study subjects were as following. Ratio of male was higher as 57.7% of male and 42.2% female and age distribution was 5.1% of 20s, 34.99% of 30s, 36.3% of 40s and 23.7% of 50s and therefore, $30{\sim}40$ aged groups showed highest ratio. Most subjects (74.9%) was married status and in case of education level, high-school graduate and dropout (23.3%) and over-college graduate (46.8%) showed highest distribution. $1{\sim}2$ Mil. KRW (29.5%) and $2{\sim}2.99$ Mil. KRW (21.2%) is the main income distribution and however there was high ratio of non-reply (29.0%). In case of employment period, $10{\sim}14$ years (15.3%) and over 15 years (29.6%) showed highest ratio and there were many non-reply (39.4%) and in addition, 67.6% replied as own house and 14.3% as lease on deposit base in question of residence type. 2. Subjects showed high ratio of subjective symptom appeal of 62.79% and many cases (50.23%) appealed 1 or 2 symptoms. Symptom by body region was 29.8% (waist), 27% (shoulder), 21.2% (knee), 15.5% (neck), 9.5% (ankle), 8.1% (wrist) and 5.0% (elbow) in order. In case of relationship with general characteristics, female comparing with male, non-residence of own house, subjects with lower education level and employment period of $10{\sim}14$ years showed higher appeal rate and kind of symptoms than others. Therefore, it was concluded that rate of musculoskeletal symptom appeal have close relationship with gender, level of living, education level, age and employment period. 3. In case of severe pain of upper body except waist and ankle, it was appealed in both or right side and it means that upper body pain is originated from right side and right region pain is transited to both region pain. In addition, there was 39.41% of non-reply to existence of right-left region pain and therefore, it was evaluated that, in may cases, there was no awareness of their own symptom condition even on subjective symptom. 4. Degree of pain was, as pain over middle level, evaluated as 2.79 on full mark of 4.0 and in order of waist (2.97), ankle (2.83), knee (2.82), wrist (2.82), neck (2.79), shoulder (2.70) and elbow (2.62). In addition, 71.97% appealed $2{\sim}3$ cases for the latest 1 week. Owing to subjective symptom, 54.95% drop into hospital or pharmacy, 10.32% made temporary retirement or absence, 7.99% transferred into more comfortable duty and $39.4{\sim}54%$ experienced one or more managing mentioned above. 5. Fulfillment of health promotion life style of subjects was evaluated on full mark of 4.0 and total score was 2.63. Average mark of each area was personal relationship (3.05), self-realization (2.92), stress management (2.63), health control (2.48), physical exercise (2.19) and nutrition management (2.19) and personal relationship was highest and physical exercise and nutrition management were lowest. As general characteristics influencing health promotion life style, gender, residence style and employment period showed significant difference. Male showed higher mark than female and showed higher mark in order of own house, others, lease on deposit base, monthly rent. Subjects with longer employment period showed higher mark with significant difference. 6. Accounting of factor influencing each area of health promotion life style, self-realization showed significance in marriage status, income, residence style and education level and health control in age, residence style and employment period. Physical exercise showed significant difference in gender, age, residence style and employment period and nutrition in gender, age, residence style and employment period. Stress management showed significant difference in residence style and employment period and however not in personal relationship. 7. Health promotion life style relating with existence and kind of pain showed significant difference in all area except personal relationship area. In absence of pain, there was statistically significant high score in all area even in total health promotion life style and all area. Accounting of kind of pain, cases of $1{\sim}2$ kinds of pain and $5{\sim}6$ kinds of pain showed relatively high score and it was lower than mark of subject stated absence of pain. 8. Subjects appeal symptom were classified by symptom region and difference of total and each areas were evaluated. General area (p=0.002), self-realization (p=0.012), health management (p=0.023), physical exercise (p=0.028), nutrition management (p=0.028) and stress control (p=0.001) showed statistically significant difference and not in personal relationship area. Especially, elbow, shoulder and neck area marked high and group appealed pain of knee, arm and elbow, foot and ankle marked low. Based on those results, subjective symptom should be accounted seriously in diagnosis of occupational musculoskeletal disease of laborer and among subjective symptom, general characteristics of gender, age, condition of living, education level and employment period make effect. Generally subject appeal symptom marked lower than subject without symptom appeal and it means that life management of subject appealing musculoskeletal pain make important role in management and treatment of occupational musculoskeletal disease.

• Journal of Global Scholars of Marketing Science
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• v.19 no.2
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• pp.68-79
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• 2009

The interplay between hedonic and utilitarian attributes has assumed special significance in recent years; it has been proposed that consumption offerings should be viewed as experiences that stimulate both cognitions and feelings rather than as mere products or services. This research builds on previous work on hedonic versus utilitarian benefits, regulatory focus theory, customer satisfaction to address two question: (1) Is the shopping goal at the point of purchase different from the shopping value? and (2) Is the customer loyalty after the use different from the shopping value and shopping goal? We surveyed 345 peoples those who have bought the electronic-goods within 6 months. This research dealt with the shopping value which is consisted of 2 types, hedonic and utilitarian. Those who pursue the hedonic shopping value may prefer the pleasure of purchasing experience to the product itself. They tend to prefer atmosphere, arousal of the shopping experience. Consistent with previous research, we use the term "hedonic" to refer to their aesthetic, experiential and enjoyment-related value. On the contrary, Those who pursue the utilitarian shopping value may prefer the reasonable buying. It may be more functional. Consistent with previous research, we use the term "utilitarian" to refer to the functional, instrumental, and practical value of consumption offerings. Holbrook(1999) notes that consumer value is an experience that results from the consumption of such benefits. In the context of cell phones for example, the phone's battery life and sound volume are utilitarian benefits, whereas aesthetic appeal from its shape and color are hedonic benefits. Likewise, in the case of a car, fuel economics and safety are utilitarian benefits whereas the sunroof and the luxurious interior are hedonic benefits. The shopping goals are consisted of the promotion focus goal and the prevention focus goal, based on the self-regulatory focus theory. The promotion focus is characterized into focusing ideal self because they are oriented to wishes and vision. The promotion focused individuals are tend to be more risk taking. They are more sensitive to hope and achievement. On the contrary, the prevention focused individuals are characterized into focusing the responsibilities because they are oriented to safety. The prevention focused individuals are tend to be more risk avoiding. We wanted to test the relation among the shopping value, shopping goal and customer loyalty. Customers show the positive or negative feelings comparing with the expectation level which customers have at the point of the purchase. If the result were bigger than the expectation, customers may feel positive feeling such as delight or satisfaction and they would want to share their feelings with other people. And they want to buy those products again in the future time. There is converging evidence that the types of goals consumers expect to be fulfilled by the utilitarian dimension of a product are different from those they seek from the hedonic dimension (Chernev 2004). Specifically, whereas consumers expect the fulfillment of product prevention goals on the utilitarian dimension, they expect the fulfillment of promotion goals on the hedonic dimension (Chernev 2004; Chitturi, Raghunathan, and Majahan 2007; Higgins 1997, 2001) According to the regulatory focus theory, prevention goals are those that ought to be met. Fulfillment of prevention goals in the context of product consumption eliminates or significantly reduces the probability of a painful experience, thus making consumers experience emotions that result from fulfillment of prevention goals such as confidence and securities. On the contrary, fulfillment of promotion goals are those that a person aspires to meet, such as "looking cool" or "being sophisticated." Fulfillment of promotion goals in the context of product consumption significantly increases the probability of a pleasurable experience, thus enabling consumers to experience emotions that result from the fulfillment of promotion goals. The proposed conceptual framework captures that the relationships among hedonic versus utilitarian shopping values and promotion versus prevention shopping goals respectively. An analysis of the consequence of the fulfillment and frustration of utilitarian and hedonic value is theoretically worthwhile. It is also substantively relevant because it helps predict post-consumption behavior such as the promotion versus prevention shopping goals orientation. Because our primary goal is to understand how the post consumption feelings influence the variable customer loyalty: word of mouth (Jacoby and Chestnut 1978). This research result is that the utilitarian shopping value gives the positive influence to both of the promotion and prevention goal. However the influence to the prevention goal is stronger. On the contrary, hedonic shopping value gives influence to the promotion focus goal only. Additionally, both of the promotion and prevention goal show the positive relation with customer loyalty. However, the positive relation with promotion goal and customer loyalty is much stronger. The promotion focus goal gives the influence to the customer loyalty. On the contrary, the prevention focus goal relates at the low level of relation with customer loyalty than that of the promotion goal. It could be explained that it is apt to get framed the compliment of people into 'gain-non gain' situation. As the result, for those who have the promotion focus are motivated to deliver their own feeling to other people eagerly. Conversely the prevention focused individual are more sensitive to the 'loss-non loss' situation. The research result is consistent with pre-existent researches. There is a conceptual parallel between necessities-needs-utilitarian benefits and luxuries-wants-hedonic benefits (Chernev 2004; Chitturi, Raghunathan and Majaha 2007; Higginns 1997; Kivetz and Simonson 2002b). In addition, Maslow's hierarchy of needs and the precedence principle contends luxuries-wants-hedonic benefits higher than necessities-needs-utilitarian benefits. Chitturi, Raghunathan and Majaha (2007) show that consumers are focused more on the utilitarian benefits than on the hedonic benefits of a product until their minimum expectation of fulfilling prevention goals are met. Furthermore, a utilitarian benefit is a promise of a certain level of functionality by the manufacturer or the retailer. When the promise is not fulfilled, customers blame the retailer and/or the manufacturer. When negative feelings are attributable to an entity, customers feel angry. However in the case of hedonic benefit, the customer, not the manufacturer, determines at the time of purchase whether the product is stylish and attractive. Under such circumstances, customers are more likely to blame themselves than the manufacturer if their friends do not find the product stylish and attractive. Therefore, not meeting minimum utilitarian expectations of functionality generates a much more intense negative feelings, such as anger than a less intense feeling such as disappointment or dissatisfactions. The additional multi group analysis of this research shows the same result. Those who are unsatisfactory customers who have the prevention focused goal shows higher relation with WOM, comparing with satisfactory customers. The research findings in this article could have significant implication for the personal selling fields to increase the effectiveness and the efficiency of the sales such that they can develop the sales presentation strategy for the customers. For those who are the hedonic customers may be apt to show more interest to the promotion goal. Therefore it may work to strengthen the design, style or new technology of the products to the hedonic customers. On the contrary for the utilitarian customers, it may work to strengthen the price competitiveness. On the basis of the result from our studies, we demonstrated a correspondence among hedonic versus utilitarian and promotion versus prevention goal, WOM. Similarly, we also found evidence of the moderator effects of satisfaction after use, between the prevention goal and WOM. Even though the prevention goal has the low level of relation to WOM, those who are not satisfied show higher relation to WOM. The relation between the prevention goal and WOM is significantly different according to the satisfaction versus unsatisfaction. In addition, improving the promotion emotions of cheerfulness and excitement and the prevention emotion of confidence and security will further improve customer loyalty. A related potential further research could be to examine whether hedonic versus utilitarian, promotion versus prevention goals improve customer loyalty for services as well. Under the budget and time constraints, designers and managers are often compelling to choose among various attributes. If there is no budget or time constraints, perhaps the best solution is to maximize both hedonic and utilitarian dimension of benefits. However, they have to make trad-off process between various attributes. For the designers and managers have to keep in mind that without hedonic benefit satisfaction of the product it may hard to lead the customers to the customer loyalty.

• Asia Marketing Journal
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• v.14 no.1
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• pp.83-98
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• 2012

In a market where new and used cars are competing with each other, we would run the risk of obtaining biased estimates of cross elasticity between them if we focus on only new cars or on only used cars. Unfortunately, most of previous studies on the automobile industry have focused on only new car models without taking into account the effect of used cars' pricing policy on new cars' market shares and vice versa, resulting in inadequate prediction of reactive pricing in response to competitors' rebate or price discount. However, there are some exceptions. Purohit (1992) and Sullivan (1990) looked into both new and used car markets at the same time to examine the effect of new car model launching on the used car prices. But their studies have some limitations in that they employed the average used car prices reported in NADA Used Car Guide instead of actual transaction prices. Some of the conflicting results may be due to this problem in the data. Park (1998) recognized this problem and used the actual prices in his study. His work is notable in that he investigated the qualitative effect of new car model launching on the pricing policy of the used car in terms of reinforcement of brand equity. The current work also used the actual price like Park (1998) but the quantitative aspect of competitive price promotion between new and used cars of the same model was explored. In this study, I develop a model that assumes that the cross elasticity between new and used cars of the same model is higher than those amongst new cars and used cars of the different model. Specifically, I apply the nested logit model that assumes the car model choice at the first stage and the choice between new and used cars at the second stage. This proposed model is compared to the IIA (Independence of Irrelevant Alternatives) model that assumes that there is no decision hierarchy but that new and used cars of the different model are all substitutable at the first stage. The data for this study are drawn from Power Information Network (PIN), an affiliate of J.D. Power and Associates. PIN collects sales transaction data from a sample of dealerships in the major metropolitan areas in the U.S. These are retail transactions, i.e., sales or leases to final consumers, excluding fleet sales and including both new car and used car sales. Each observation in the PIN database contains the transaction date, the manufacturer, model year, make, model, trim and other car information, the transaction price, consumer rebates, the interest rate, term, amount financed (when the vehicle is financed or leased), etc. I used data for the compact cars sold during the period January 2009- June 2009. The new and used cars of the top nine selling models are included in the study: Mazda 3, Honda Civic, Chevrolet Cobalt, Toyota Corolla, Hyundai Elantra, Ford Focus, Volkswagen Jetta, Nissan Sentra, and Kia Spectra. These models in the study accounted for 87% of category unit sales. Empirical application of the nested logit model showed that the proposed model outperformed the IIA (Independence of Irrelevant Alternatives) model in both calibration and holdout samples. The other comparison model that assumes choice between new and used cars at the first stage and car model choice at the second stage turned out to be mis-specfied since the dissimilarity parameter (i.e., inclusive or categroy value parameter) was estimated to be greater than 1. Post hoc analysis based on estimated parameters was conducted employing the modified Lanczo's iterative method. This method is intuitively appealing. For example, suppose a new car offers a certain amount of rebate and gains market share at first. In response to this rebate, a used car of the same model keeps decreasing price until it regains the lost market share to maintain the status quo. The new car settle down to a lowered market share due to the used car's reaction. The method enables us to find the amount of price discount to main the status quo and equilibrium market shares of the new and used cars. In the first simulation, I used Jetta as a focal brand to see how its new and used cars set prices, rebates or APR interactively assuming that reactive cars respond to price promotion to maintain the status quo. The simulation results showed that the IIA model underestimates cross elasticities, resulting in suggesting less aggressive used car price discount in response to new cars' rebate than the proposed nested logit model. In the second simulation, I used Elantra to reconfirm the result for Jetta and came to the same conclusion. In the third simulation, I had Corolla offer $1,000 rebate to see what could be the best response for Elantra's new and used cars. Interestingly, Elantra's used car could maintain the status quo by offering lower price discount ($160) than the new car ($205). In the future research, we might want to explore the plausibility of the alternative nested logit model. For example, the NUB model that assumes choice between new and used cars at the first stage and brand choice at the second stage could be a possibility even though it was rejected in the current study because of mis-specification (A dissimilarity parameter turned out to be higher than 1). The NUB model may have been rejected due to true mis-specification or data structure transmitted from a typical car dealership. In a typical car dealership, both new and used cars of the same model are displayed. Because of this fact, the BNU model that assumes brand choice at the first stage and choice between new and used cars at the second stage may have been favored in the current study since customers first choose a dealership (brand) then choose between new and used cars given this market environment. However, suppose there are dealerships that carry both new and used cars of various models, then the NUB model might fit the data as well as the BNU model. Which model is a better description of the data is an empirical question. In addition, it would be interesting to test a probabilistic mixture model of the BNU and NUB on a new data set.

• The Korean Journal of Air & Space Law and Policy
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• v.28 no.2
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• pp.3-35
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• 2013

Air transport today is a means of transport that is optimized for exchanges between nations. Around the world, has experienced an increase in operating and the number of airline route expansion that has entered into the international aviation agreements in order to take advantage of the air transport efficient, but the possibility of the occurrence of air transport accidents increased. When compared to the accident of other means of transport, development of air transport accidents, not high, but it leads to catastrophe aviation accident occurs. Air Transport accident many international transportation accident than domestic transportation accident, in the event of an accident, the analysis of the legal responsibility of the shipper or the like is necessary or passenger air carrier. Judgment of the legal order of discipline of air transport accident is a classification of the type of air transport agreement. Depending on the object, air transport agreements are classified into the contract of carriage of aviation of the air passenger transportation contract. For casualties occurs, air passenger transportation accident is a need more discussion of legal discipline for this particular. Korean Commercial Code, it is possible to reflect in accordance with the actual situation of South Korea the contents of the treaty, which is utilized worldwide in international air transport, even on the system, to control land, sea, air transport and welcoming to international standards. However, Korean Commercial Code, the problem of the Montreal Convention has occurred as it is primarily reflecting the Montreal Convention. As a cause of liability for damages, under the Commercial Code of Korea and the contents of the treaty precedent is reflected, the concept of accident is necessary definition of the exact concept for damages of passengers in particular. Cause of personal injury or death of passengers, in the event of an accident to the "working for the elevation" or "aircraft" on, the Montreal Convention is the mother method of Korea Commercial Code, liability for damages of air carrier defines. The Montreal Convention such, continue to be a matter of debate so far in connection with the scope of "working for the lifting of" the concepts defined in the same way from Warsaw Convention "accident". In addition, it is discussed and put to see if you can be included mental damage passenger suffered in air transport in the "personal injury" in the damage of the passenger is in the range of damages. If the operation of aircraft, injury accident, in certain circumstances, compensation for mental damage is possible, in the same way as serious injury, mental damage caused by aviation accidents not be able to live a normal life for the victim it is damage to make. So it is necessary to interpret and what is included in the injury to the body in Korea Commercial Code and related conventions, non-economic damage of passengers, clearly demonstrated from the point of view of prevention of abuse of litigation and reasonable protection of air carrier it must compensate only psychological damage that can be. Since the compensation of delay damages, Warsaw Convention, the Montreal Convention, Korea Commercial Code, there are provisions of the liability of the air carrier due to the delayed arrival of passenger and baggage, but you do not have a reference to delayed arrival, the concept of delay arrangement is necessary. The strict interpretation of the concept of delayed arrival, because it may interfere with safe operation of the air carrier, within the time agreed to the airport of arrival that is described in the aviation contract of carriage of passenger baggage, or, these agreements I think the absence is to be defined as when it is possible to consider this situation, requests the carrier in good faith is not Indian or arrive within a reasonable time is correct. The loss of passenger, according to the international passenger Conditions of Carriage of Korean Air, in addition to the cases prescribed by law and other treaties, loss of airline contracts, resulting in passengers from a service that Korean Air and air transport in question do damage was is, that the fact that Korean Air does not bear the responsibility as a general rule, that was caused by the negligence or intentional negligence of Korean Air is proof, negligence of passengers of the damage has not been interposed bear responsibility only when it is found. It is a clause in the case of damage that is not mandated by law or treaty, and responsible only if the negligence of the airline side has been demonstrated, but of the term negligence "for" intentional or negligent "Korean Air's Terms" I considered judgment of compatibility is required, and that gross negligence is appropriate. The "Korean Air international passenger Conditions of Carriage", airlines about the damage such as electronic equipment that is included in the checked baggage of passengers does not bear the responsibility, but the loss of baggage, international to arrive or depart the U.S. it is not the case of transportation. Therefore, it is intended to discriminate unfairly passengers of international flights arriving or departure to another country passengers of international flights arriving or departure, the United States, airlines will bear the responsibility for the goods in the same way as the contents of the treaty it should be revised in the direction.