• Korean Journal of Community Nutrition
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• v.17 no.3
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• pp.341-352
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• 2012

It is well established that excessive sodium intake is related to a higher incidence of chronic diseases such as hypertension, stroke, coronary heart disease, cardiovascular disease and gastric cancer. Although the upper limit of the current sodium intake guideline by WHO is set at 2,000 mg/day for adults, sodium intake of Koreans is well over 4,700 mg/capita/day implying an urgent need to develop and implement sodium intake reduction policy at the national level. This study investigated the cost-effectiveness of the sodium intake reduction policy, for the first time, in Korea. Analyses were performed using most recent and representative data on national health insurance statistics, healthcare utilization, employment information, disease morbidity/mortality, etc. The socioeconomic benefits of the policy, resulting from reduced morbidity of those relevant diseases, included lower medical expenditures, transportation costs, caregiver cost for inpatients and income losses. The socioeconomic benefits from diminished mortality included reductions in earning losses and welfare losses caused by early deaths. It is estimated that the amount of total benefits of reducing sodium intake from 4.7 g to 3.0 g is 12.6 trillion Korean Won; and the size of its cost is 149 billion Won. Assuming that the effect of sodium intake reduction would become gradually evident over a 5-year period, the implied rate of average return to the sodium reduction policy is 7,790% for the following 25 years, suggesting a very high cost-effectiveness. Accordingly, development and implementation of a mid-to-long term plan for a consistent sodium intake reduction policy is extremely beneficial and well warranted.

• Food Science and Industry
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• v.49 no.2
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• pp.8-17
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• 2016

Sodium is a component of salt and naturally taken in the process of taking in table salt. For food processing, salt is very important. In general, salt adds flavor and taste including a salty taste and rheologically, it plays an important role in forming tissues. Also, it helps in improving preservability of food by controling growth of microorganisms. But excessive intake of salt has been blamed for outbreak of high blood pressure, heart disease, stroke, osteoporosis, kidney stone, stomach cancer and others. For this reason, there are active efforts to reduce sodium of processed foods all around the world. In Korea, a guideline for sodium reduction in 27 items and 44 kinds of foods including confectionery was suggested as part of the 'processed food sodium reduction guideline development project', which has been conducted since 2012.

• Food Science and Industry
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• v.49 no.2
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• pp.34-44
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• 2016

Given that fermented foods, such as kimchi and doenjang, are main food sources for high sodium intake in Korea, there have been needs to develop sodium-reduced kimchi and doenjang with the proper quality. However, small and medium sized business could not actively develop the sodium-reduced products due to lack of techniques and information as well as economical reasons. The most important aspects is to address food safety issues including microbial contaminations in sodium-reduced foods. Hurdle Technology, physical, biological, chemical control technique, would have to be preferentially considered to increase the hygiene safety standards in entire processing steps including raw materials, process water, manufacturing environments, and so on. Once the food hygiene level is stable, the next challenges are to improve the taste of the sodium reduced-products as well as to packaging and storage technologies. The development of a variety of sodium-reduced fermented foods would result in significant mitigation of sodium intake by Korean. This report provides the directions to develop sodium-reduced kimchi, doenjang or pickled food products for small and medium sized business, based on the technical consulting results of sodium reduction project supported by Ministry of Food and Drug Safety in 2015.

• Korean Journal of Community Nutrition
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• v.16 no.4
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• pp.473-487
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• 2011

We attempted to define the sources of sodium intake for the Korean population at prepared dish level to provide a basis for developing sustainable nutrition policies and feasible programs for sodium intake reduction. Dietary intake data from 2008 and 2009 Korea National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey was used in the analysis for sodium intake sources. Sodium intake from individual dish consumed by each subject was calculated and used in delineating major sodium sources at dish and dish group level for sub-populations of different sex and age. Also, sodium intake was compared between eaters and non-eaters of some specific dish groups with considerable contribution to total sodium intake. The number of subjects included in the analysis was 18,022 and mean sodium intake was 4,600 mg/capita/day. Major sources of sodium intake at dish group level were in the following order: kimchi (1125 mg, 24.5%), noodles (572 mg, 12.4%), soups (488 mg, 10.6%), stews (399 mg, 8.7%), and cooked rice (284 mg, 6.2%). The magnitude of contribution to total sodium intake by soups and stews was different by age group. Sodium intake difference between eaters and non-eaters was much larger for kimchi group (2,343 mg for male, 1,452 mg for female) than for soups or stews. Interaction between consumption of aforementioned specific dish groups and age was highly significant (p < 0.0005) for both sexes. This study revealed an importance of having not only the control over sodium content of foods/dishes, but also the customized approach for different groups of population to accomplish an appreciable reduction in sodium intake.

• Journal of the Korean Dietetic Association
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• v.19 no.2
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• pp.173-181
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• 2013

This study used survey data to identify the use of salimeters and the prevalence of sodium reduction education in the Gyeonggi region. A survey with 211 dietitians working in school foodservice (106 in elementary schools, 69 in middle schools, and 36 in high schools) was conducted from August 6 to August 17, 2012. The data were analyzed using the SPSS program. Though 86.6% of school kitchens had salimeters, the rate for checking the sodium content of soup or stew was just 62.7% and the rate for checking the sodium content of kimchi and solid food was very low. Since salimeters are mostly used to measure sodium in liquid foods, it is urgent to provide an education and manual on using salimeters and to promote salimetry for kimchi and side dishes. It is also important to provide students with nutritional information by clearly posting the sodium content of food on menus and compelling students to notice them. Sodium reduction education for cooks was conducted in the 70.3% of the kitchens; however, the dietitians perceived that the cooks did not understand the importance of the education. Also, sodium reduction education for students was mostly provided through indirect methods, rather than face-to-face education, resulting in poor educational data (only 36.4% comprehending). By providing detailed guidelines for sodium reduction and labelling accurate content of sodium of the menus, we will be able to enforce practices for sodium reduction in school lunches.

• Journal of Nutrition and Health
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• v.53 no.6
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• pp.648-662
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• 2020

Purpose: Sodium intake is persistently decreasing because of the government's sodium reduction policy. This study aimed to identify foods and dishes that contributed to the reduction of sodium intake and evaluate the effects of the sodium reduction policy. Methods: The subjects were 57,809 participants in the Korea National Health and Nutrition Survey from 2010 to 2017. To identify food and dish sources of sodium intake, the food and dish groups were classified into 23 and 21 groups, respectively. Foods and dishes that contributed to sodium intake were categorized according to the production and cooking venues: production by manufacturers, home cooking, cooking at catering service, and restaurant cooking. Results: Sodium intake was 4,876 mg in 2010 to 3,477 mg in 2017, showing a 29.7% decrease in intake in 2010. Sodium intake was decreased mainly in foods produced by manufacturers and home-cooked foods. The main contributory factors to sodium from the food and dish groups differed according to the food manufacturer and cooking venue. The kimchi produced by manufacturers, cooked soup/tang/jjigae/hotpot at home and catering services, and cooked noodles/dumplings in restaurants were the main contributors to the sodium intake. Conclusion: The type of foods and dishes that contribute to sodium intake tended to expand over the years from specific foods and dishes to various groups of foods and dishes. These results provide evidence for the development and production of low-salt foods and dietary education related to low-salt intake.

• Food Industry And Nutrition
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• v.20 no.2
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• pp.6-7
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• 2015

• Food Science and Industry
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• v.49 no.2
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• pp.2-7
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• 2016

• Journal of the Korean Dietetic Association
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• v.20 no.3
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• pp.174-182
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• 2014

This study compared total sodium amounts in 'Healthy Restaurant for Sodium Reduction' menu items located in Seoul, Chungcheong, and Gyeongsang in 2011 and 2012. In addition, this study explored reduced sodium cooking methods in 'Healthy Restaurant for Sodium Reduction'. This study monitored and collected menu samples from a total of 103 restaurants participating in 'Healthy Restaurant for Sodium Reduction' in 2011 and 2012. We also surveyed restaurant employees to identify reduced sodium cooking methods in 2012. The results showed significant reductions in total amounts of sodium in menu items of restaurants located in Seoul, Chungcheong, and Gyeongsang between 2011 ($310.8{\pm}156.8mg/100g$) and 2012 ($211.6{\pm}110.3mg/100g$). Amounts of sodium in all seven foodgroups showed significant reductions between 2011 and 2012: 'Gook/Tang' (from $226.6{\pm}127.7mg/100g$ to $168.5{\pm}74.3mg/100g$), 'Jjigae/Jeongol' (from $385.8{\pm}111.7mg/100g$ to $257.1{\pm}82.53mg/100g$), 'Noodle/Dumpling' (from $263.8{\pm}116.9mg/100g$ to $194.1{\pm}55.6mg/100g$), 'Gui' (from $390.3{\pm}120.6mg/100g$ to $258.8{\pm}92.7mg/100g$), 'Steamed dish' (from $305.3{\pm}124.3mg/100g$ to $175.6{\pm}76.6mg/100g$), 'Bob' (from $273.7{\pm}162.5mg/100g$ to $167.1{\pm}93.1mg/100g$), and 'Stir-fried dish' (from $368.6{\pm}116.6mg/100g$ to $219.0{\pm}72.4mg/100g$). The survey results showed that responses for 'Reducing salt amount' were 75.7%, responses for 'Using enchovy stock, shrimp, radish, or fruit soup' were 64.1%, and responses for 'Liking the taste because it is bland' were 50%. This study indicates that 'Healthy Restaurant for Sodium Reduction' nutrition policy was successful for reducing sodium contents of restaurant menu items, and also consumers were satisfied with the tastes.

• Journal of Nutrition and Health
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• v.50 no.6
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• pp.664-678
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• 2017

Purpose: To identify the effectiveness of policy evaluation, consistent monitoring is necessary. This study aimed to carry out mid-term evaluation of objectives and programs related to comprehensive plans for sodium intake reduction by 2020 for Seoul city and then reestablish the objectives of the sodium intake reduction plans. Methods: Literature reviews, data analysis, and reviews of expert focus-groups were performed to evaluate objectives, to develop a new goal, and to identify the priority subjects of the sodium intake reduction programs. In order to examine target populations for the programs, awareness and behaviors related to sodium intakes among Seoul citizens were examined by sex, age, and income level using the 2008~2013 Korea National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey data. Results: Current objectives of the sodium intake reduction plan by 2020 for Seoul city were not appropriate, so objectives were reset to 3,600 mg of sodium intake by 2020 among Seoul citizens with 2% reduction per year. Although sodium intake showed a decreasing trend by year, it was still high, especially in men. The sodium intake reduction programs currently in progress have not been assessed at multiple levels across multiple sectors and have only been assessed fragmentarily. For dietary behavior related to sodium intakes by sex, age, and income level, sodium intake was higher in the group with less than 100 g of fruit intake compared to the group with 100 g or more. Subjects aged 30~59 years and the low household income group showed relatively higher sodium intakes. Based on the data analysis and the expert review, the priority subject of the sodium intake reduction programs was determined to be adult men. In terms of a program strategy for sodium intake reduction, multi-level and setting approaches, including work sites, home, and restaurants, were suggested to reduce sodium intakes of the target subject. Conclusion: The suggested objectives should be consistently monitored by data analysis, and the determined programs need to be phased in over 5 years.