• Korean Journal of Heritage: History & Science
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• v.52 no.4
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• pp.226-245
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• 2019

Beopjusa Gwaebultaeng (Large Buddhist Painting), designated as Treasure No. 1259, was painted in 1766 and featured Yeorae (Buddha) at the center in the style of a single figure. It is the longest existing buddhist painting and was created by Duhun, a painter who was representative of 18th century Korean artists. His other remaining work is Seokgayeorae Gwaebultaeng (1767) in Tongdosa Temple. Considering their same iconography, they are assumed to have used the same underdrawing. Duhun had a superb ability to maintain a consistent underdrawing, while most painters changed theirs within a year. The Beopjusa painting carries significance because it was not only painted earlier than the one in Tongdosa, but also indicates possible relevance to the royal family through its records. Beopjusa Temple is also the site of Seonhuigung Wondang, a shrine housing the spirit tablet of Lady Yi Youngbin, also known as Lady Seonhui. Having been built only a year before Beopjusa Gwaebultaeng was painted, it served as a basis for the presumption that it has a connection to the royal family. In particular, a group of unmarried women is noticeable in the record of Beopjusa painting. The names of some people, including Ms. Lee, born in the year of Gyengjin, are recorded on the Bonginsa Temple Building, the construction of which Lady Yi Youngbin and Princess Hwawan donated money to. In this regard, they are probably court ladies related to Lady Yi Youngbin. The connection of Beopjusa Gwaebultaeng with the royal family is also verified by a prayer at the bottom of the painting, reading "JusangJusamJeonhaSumanse (主上主三殿下壽萬歲, May the king live forever)." While looking into the historical characteristics of this art, this study took an approach based on scientific analysis. Damages to Beopjusa Gwaebultaeng include: bending, folding, wrinkles, stains due to moisture, pigment spalling, point-shaped pigment spalling, and pigment penetration to the lining paper at the back. According to the results of an analysis of the painting pigments, white lead was used as a white pigment, while an ink stick and indigo were used for black. For red, cinnabar and minium were used independently or were combined. For purple, organic pigments seem to have been used. For yellow, white lead and gamboge were mixed, or gamboge was painted over white lead, and gold foil was adopted for storage. As a green pigment, atacamite or a mixture of atacamite and malachite was used. Azurite and smalt were used separately or together as blue pigments.

• Journal of the Korean Institute of Traditional Landscape Architecture
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• v.30 no.2
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• pp.142-154
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• 2012

This study aimed at learning the characteristics of place identity of the Buan county hall garden and Sangsosan(上蘇山) by looking over the pattern and content of letter-engraved rocks and nearby facilities and history. Especially, we focused on the meaning and contents of the letters in Sangsosan and a Government Office of Buan engraved on rocks in order to learn what the place means. The results of our study are as follows. Buan-hyun(扶安縣) in the Joseon dynasty period blossomed literary culture of enjoying poetry and melody, and this was faithful realization of the concept of "Rakto(樂土)" of 'Saengubuan(生居扶安).' The grand scale letters written by Si-SooPark(朴蓍壽: 1767~1876), head of the office in the early 19th century, in the cursive style on the basis stone of the garden of Buan county building, which was the site of the office of Buan-hyun in the Joseon dynasty period, such as 'Bongraedongcheon(蓬萊洞天)', 'Jurim(珠林)', and 'Okcheon(玉泉)' mean that "'Bongrae', the another name of Buan', is a place where Taoist hermits would live because the spring water of Seorim flows down to be Okcheon.", showing his pride of living Buan. The regions like Seorimjeong, Geumdae(琴臺), and Hyecheon(惠泉) where letters engraved on rocks are located intensively are closely related with those who communicated with Mae-ChangLee(李梅窓: 1573~1610), the slave of the government, and are local attractions and garden traces where the literary culture and scholar's spirit of Buan are well-harmonized. Most of the letters were written from the 19th century to the early 20th century, showing that 4 for landscapes, 8 for Kyungseck(景色: imaginary scenry), 5 for figures, 15 for poems and 2 for others. The ratio of poems is much higher than that of poems in other regions' letters on rocks, and the keyword of the letters is Haecheon. A piece of the place identity heavily influenced by the Taois thermit ideology is revealed by the expressions of 'Bongraedongcheon', 'Sosansaho(蘇山四皓)' or 'the spring water of Haecheon' that was considered as an elixir of Taoist hermits. Seorim the forest, which had been managed after Yeon-Myeong Cho(趙然明: 1797~?), head of the office, planted trees in the 11th year of the reign of King Heonjong(1845), Seorimjeong in the forest, and rocks with engraved letters on them are proof of literary culture and the garden traces showing the characteristics and aspect of Imcheon(林泉) Garden of the office heavily influenced by the Taoist hermit ideology. Along with Naebyeon-san national park and Kyeokpo region, the center of Buan tourism, we hope that cultural heritages including rocks with engraved letters over Seorim park would become a representative cultural heritage and attraction of Buan.

• Journal of the Korean Institute of Traditional Landscape Architecture
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• v.35 no.2
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• pp.87-97
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• 2017

Paulownia species has long been recognized in Korean traditional culture and the values of the species have been researched in various focuses. However, studies on distribution and ecological characteristics of the species are still needed. This study aimed to identify distribution trends and ecological characteristics of two Paulownia species in Busan metropolitan city using the MaxEnt model. The MaxEnt model was established based on the environmental factors such as positioning information of the Paulownia species, topography, climate and degree of anthropogenic disturbance potentiality (ADP), which was collected in the on-site research. The study verified that the accuracy of the model was appropriate as the AUC value of Paulownia coreana and P. tomentosa was 0.809, respectively. In terms of the distribution trends of the two Paulownia species in the research area depending on the distribution model, they were both mainly distributed in downtown where built-up area and bare ground were densely concentrated. The potential distribution area of the two species was identified as $137.4km^2$ for P. coreana and $135.0km^2$ for P. tomentosa. The distribution probability was high in Jung-gu, Dongrae-gu, Busanjin-gu and Yeonje-gu. As a result of the analysis on contribution of the environmental factors, it was turned out that the degree of anthropogenic disturbance potentiality (ADP) contributed to distribution of P. coreana and P. tomentosa by about 50%, and the contribution of the environmental factors had a positive correlation with the degree of ADP. The elevation had a negative correlation with both the two species, which was considered because the species must compete more with native species in natural habitats as the altitude above sea level rises. The research findings demonstrated numerically that the distribution of P.coreana and P. tomentosa depended on artificial activities, and indicated the relevance with the Korean traditional landscape. These findings are expected to provide meaningful information in using, preserving and restoring Paulownia species.

• Journal of the Korean Institute of Traditional Landscape Architecture
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• v.35 no.2
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• pp.77-86
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• 2017

A study on the population ecology of gregarious Wisteria habitat was conducted in Beomeosa temple, Busan. The area has been protected since it was designated as No. 176 natural monument in 1966. Such a large habitat of native wisteria (Wisteria floribunda DC.) in Korea is very rare so that it has a very high academic value. However, there are no high-resolution researches on the distribution and ecology of wisteria in the Gregarious Wisteria Habitat of Beomeosa Temple. The study aimed to identify the distribution and characteristics of wisteria populations in the Wisteria habitat. The study identified the distribution of Wisteria, RCC, the climbing direction, the plant and flora in the research area in the Gregarious Wisteria Habitat of Beomeosa Temple in Busan and the surrounding areas based on an on-site research. As a result, the total number of the wisteria populations in the research area was confirmed to be 1,158 and the RCC of wisteria was on average 69.0 mm (${\pm}45.5$) and in maximum 365 mm. In terms of the climbing direction, the number of wisteria that climbs clockwise or counterclockwise was determined to be 40. It was identified that there are 28 taxa of the climbing plant species and the wisteria of the same kind was the most favorable. The populations were found to be dispersed adjacent to the valleys, and were found to be maintained by constant disturbance. 76.6 % of the population was found to be distributed in the valley forest, and the Carpinus tschonoskii-Pseudosasa japonica forest, Pueraria lobata community and Pinus densiflora forest were found to be relatively dispersed. The study proposed to conduct the follow-up researches to preserve the wisteria that is spreading in this research area, the wisteria with the highest RCC and regional habitat through continuous monitoring; and maintain the protection area of No. 176 natural monument; and discussed the management measures and approaches that reflect the habitat.

• Journal of the Korean Institute of Traditional Landscape Architecture
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• v.37 no.3
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• pp.22-36
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• 2019

This research identified landscape characteristics of Chilitan(칠리탄) area, which had been managed by Son Giyang(1559~1617, p. Ohhan), in order to understand the political viewpoint and ideal landscapes, sought after by Confucian scholars in the 16~17th century. As the research method for the interpretation of each scene's spatial strucutres and meanings, paintings and poems in Chiltanjungsipyukgyeongdo(the Paintings of the 16 Scenes of Chiltanjung Area) were analyzed, which were followed by the on-site survey. Son lived hermit life with the nature after he decided to retire into the country for the chaotic political environment in the 4^th year of Gwanghaegun's reign. Admiring Eum Jareung(B.C. 39-41, p. Eumgwang)'s hermit life, he named a headstream to Chilitan, erected pavilion and made place for angling by the stream, as Eum did in the hermitage. However he worried the king and royal politics in spite of his hermit life, which showed his political viewpoint of Confucianism. In addition, every column of buildings in the garden was named in order to imply both thoughts of Neo-Confucianism and Idleness Naturalism, which highlight a moral training and being comfortable amid poverty and taking pleasure in and honest life style. The present landscape of wonlim could be back to 1936, where Unganru, Byeokripjae and Chiltanjung are surrounding Eupcheondang. Chines character, such as Jimamsuseok, Giam, Ohhansonsunseongjanggujiso and Jogi, are inscribed on the rocks in the landscape garden, from which placeness could be inferred. According to the record of the construction, pine, fir, paulownia, ginkgo, peach trees, bamboo and lotus were planted, and ginkgo, bamboo, crape myrtle, pine and chestnut tress are still living in the garden, which mean plants had been planted in the light of their practical values as well as symbolic meanings. The method for describing 16 scenes of Chiltanjung could be characterized to the structure of 「Place+Scene(a particural activity, event, or action), and these placeness could be analyzed by categorizing the scene to near, middle and far views. Each scene symbolically presents a hermit, noble man, Taoist ideology, homeland, or peacetime, which were adpoted to depict landscapes of Chiltanjung area as the Confucian utopia.

• Journal of Korean Society of Forest Science
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• v.99 no.3
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• pp.323-330
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• 2010

This study was undertaken to compare early growth characteristics, such as height, diameter at root collar (DRC), and the dry weights of stem, branches, needles and roots between naturally regenerated and planted stands of Pinus densiflora for. erecta in Dae-gi and Bo-gwang site, Gangwon province, Republic of Korea. Average DRC growth was similar between the naturally regenerated and the planted stands in Dae-gi area, however, difference was statistically significant (P<0.01) between the naturally regenerated and the planted stands in Bo-gwang area, 4.66 cm and 2.61 cm, respectively. Average height of the naturally regenerated stands was significantly greater (P<0.01) than that of planted stands in both Dae-gi and Bo-gwang areas. The composition ratio of the dry weights for each part of measured trees was the highest in the stem in the naturally regenerated stands, but in the planted stands, the needle was the highest in both sites. The root/shoot ratio in the Dae-gi and Bo-gwang areas in the planted stands were much greater than those in the naturally regenerated stands, 0.25-0.30 and 0.17-0.18, respectively. The ratio of needle to stem biomass (N/S), branch to stem biomass (B/S), and needle to branch biomass (N/B) was significantly greater in the planted stands than those in the naturally regenerated stands in both sites. The results of this study represent that the regeneration methods, natural and artificial regenerations, can have an influence on the early growth of P densiflora for. erecta. This results not only provide the need for a correct planting method, but also will be useful in studies on the environmental adaptability of trees.

• Journal of the Korean earth science society
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• v.22 no.4
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• pp.327-338
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• 2001

In this study, the short-term variability of methane concentrations were investigated over 24-hr scale. The data obtained form the Moo-Ahn (MAN) station located in the western coastal area of Korea were analyzed from various respects to describe its distribution characteristics over short term scale. The MAN data were compared with those obtained from the two major background observatory sites: Point Barrow (Alaska) and Mauna Loa (Hawaii). The mean concentration of methane for the whole study period, when computed using the daily mean values, was found to be 1898${\pm}$85.3ppb (N=812). The mean values for the two comparable sites were observed to be 1832${\pm}$29.6ppb (N=823) for Point Barrow and 1745${\pm}$14.8ppb (N=818) for Mauna Loa. According to the analysis of frequency distribution. the mode value for the MAN area is found to be 1900ppb, but the mean concentration for Point Barrow and Mauna Loa are shown to have relatively low values of 1850 and 1750ppb, respectively. When examined over diurnal scale, the CH$_4$data for the MAN area exhibit a rather consistent trend; CH$_4$level is low during the daytime (after 6:00 A.M) and rises during the nighttime. The findings of the generally enhanced methane concentration in the MAN station may be explained form various respects. One of the most important reasons is that the MAN area is under the influence of various source processes relative to all the other stations under consideration. The short-term distribution patterns for the MAN station are hence characterized not only by the high methane concentration but also by the high oscillation in its CH$_4$concentration level.

• Journal of Korean Society of Forest Science
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• v.32 no.1
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• pp.1-8
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• 1976

One of the most common needle leaf species used in planting in Korea is korean pine (Pinus koraiensis S. et Z.), and jack pine (Pinus banksiana Lamb.) is one of the test species for suitability. The relation of nursery bed density of 2-1 korean pine and 1-1 jack pine was studied at the Kwang Nung Nursery, Central Branch Station of Forest Research Institute, and about 40km north of Seoul. Nursery bed density of 2-1 korean pine, which ranged from 36 to 324 trees per square meters and of 1-1 jack pine, which ranged from 25 to 169 trees per square meters, had a marked effect on caliper, height, dry weight and percent and amount of plantable stock. The soil physical and chemical properties is silt plus clay, 50.55 percent; organic matter, 2.09 percent; total nitrogen, 0.13 percent; available phosphorus, 253.25 ppm; exchangeable potash, 0.46 m.e/100g; and pH, 5.58. As the density of the nursery seedling stand of 2-1 korean pine increases, the average tree height increases (Fig. 1A), but in 1-1 jack pine density do not affect to increase or decrease the average tree height. As the density of nursery bed increases, the average stem caliper (at 2cm above ground line) and dry weight decrease (Fig. 1B), but the decreasing rate is more seriously in 1-1 jack pine than 2-1 korean pine (Fig.5). As increasing the density of nursery bed, the T/R ratio of trees of the test species increase. Also the dry weight of leaf, stem and root parts are decreasing in proportion to the increase of stand density, but the drop rate of jack pine is more rapid than korean pine (table. 1) The patent facts of difference of growth characteristics between 2-1 korean pine and 1-1 jack pine were studied. These facts should be used to select the scale of stand density at the nursery bed or the plantable site. Korean pine is demanded high density, on the other hand in jack pine low density are more suitable to manage the stand density. Stands of comparatively low density had the greatest percentage of high-quality stock, and the stands of high density had less than the high quality trees of low density. An important criterion of the best density is percent and number of high-quality trees produced per square meter of bed area. Stem caliper and stem height of seedling is used in most public nurseries to sort seedling into plantable grades. The stock grade standard has set at 4.5mm caliper and 16cm height of 2-1 korean pine as the minimum desired stem caliper and height. By the result studies, the plantable stock grade standards of 2-1 korean pine used at stem height 16cm and stem caliper 4.5mm from public nurseries should be reformed to stem height 18cm and stem caliper 4.0mm by the growth characteristics and the tree distribution of stem height and caliper of relation to density. For the 2-1 korean pine, best density should be about 160 to 200 trees per square meter according to soil fertility. For the 1-1 jack pine, the suitable standard of plantable stock should be at stem height 25cm and caliper 6mm (at 2cm above ground line) and best density was about 100 to 120 trees.

• Journal of the Korean Institute of Landscape Architecture
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• v.38 no.3
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• pp.75-82
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• 2010

This study formed an estimation of the visual characteristics of urban bridges in Yanghwaro in the Gyeongui Railroad Area using a landscape simulation. Existing theses have formerly only suggested directions for design based on visual preference, but there is as yet no research on the practical process of landscape design. As a result, it is difficult to directly apply this to bridge design. This study found a potential bridge site and presented a direction for bridge design in order to improve the image of the surrounding urban landscape by surveying the visual effects and landscape preferences of different bridge types. An urban landscape was produced using a landscape simulation model and was made the background for the survey. Five bridge types--Girder, Arch, Truss, Cable and Suspension--were selected and presented. The shapes of the bridges were selected based on the floor plan. The results of this study are as follows. In a preference analysis, every bridge except Girder was evaluated as a positive influence. When rating the image, 'artificial' was rated significantly higher than other traits when assessing the background image. When the Girder Bridge was introduced, 'stable' and 'orderly' were both rated highly while 'stable', 'beautiful', 'orderly' and 'interesting' were high with the introduction of the Arch Bridge. 'Beautiful', 'stable', and 'orderly' were given a high value in the introduction of the Truss Bridge and every image except 'natural', 'harmony' and 'orderly' were highly rated in the introduction of the Cable Bridge. Further, every image but 'natural' was highly rated with the introduction of the Suspension Bridge. Based on the analysis of the landscape, there is a difference in preference before and after modeling a bridge type, while the bridge itself is an influence when it is the main object of the simulated scene. This study researched only the shape of the bridge as a part of the landscape but other elements such as stability, economics, and construction are also factors in the design of a bridge. Stability, economics, construction and other factors must be considered when selecting a bridge type in the future.

• Korean Chemical Engineering Research
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• v.46 no.5
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• pp.1008-1012
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• 2008

Nanoscale zero-valent iron(nZVI) is famous for its high reactivity originated from its high surface area and it has received considerable attentions as one of the latest innovative technologies for treating contaminated groundwater. Due to its fine powdery form, nZVI has limited filed applications. The efforts to overcome this shortcoming by immobilizing nZVI on a supporting material have been made. This study investigated the differences of resin-supported nZVI's characteristics by changing the preparation methods and evaluated its reactivity. The borohydride reduction of an iron salt was proceeded in ethanol/water solvent containing a dispersant and the synthesis was conducted in the presence of ion-exchange resin. The resulting material was compared to that prepared in a conventional way of using de-ionized water by measuring the phyrical and chemical characteristics. BET surface area and Fe content of nZVI-attached resin was increased from $31.63m^2/g$ and 18.19 mg Fe/g to $38.10m^2/g$ and 22.44 mg Fe/g, respectively, by switching the solution medium from water to ethanol/water with a dispersant. The reactivity of each material was tested using nitrate solution without pH control. The pseudo first-order constant of $0.462h^{-1}$ suggested the reactivity of resin-supported nZVI prepared in ethanol/water was increased 61 % compared to that of the conventional type of supported nZVI. The specific reaction rate constant based on surface area was also increased. The results suggest that this new supported nZVI can be used successfully in on-site remediation for contaminated groundwater.