• Economic and Environmental Geology
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• v.2 no.3
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• pp.1-25
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• 1969

In considering the mining industry, it is necessary to study the production, consumption and price of ore and metals in every country of the world in order to determine the trend of the industry in the present and for the future. This study is necessary especially for exporting domestically produced are which is in excess of domestic consumption and for importing are, or metal where local production does not meet domestic demand. It will be treated of Au, Ag, Cu, Pb, Zn, W, Mo, which are the most important non-ferrous metals, and which greatly affect the mining industry of Korea. The presentation will concern itself only with the free world. About 1, 200 ton of gold are produced annually with little fluctiation in recent years. Most of the gold produced is consumed by advanced countries for industrial uses as well as for producing precious objects. The U.S.A. expends yearly about four times its domestic production and Japan about three times its domestic production for industry and arts. Because of the instability of the currency of the U.S.A., England and France, recently, the price of gold has been $ 41-42 per ounce, whereas the official price is $35.00 per ounce. It will be expected that the official price will be raised in the near future. As for silver, about 6,500 tons are produced annually with no special fluctuation change in recent years. However, the annual consumption is about 14,000 ton, so the supply and demand is extremely unbalanced. The shortage is made up by the sale of the U.S. treasury's reserve stock and the reclaiminig of silver from coins and other scrap. As the Treasury'S reserves will be exhausted in a year or two, the price of silver which is $1. 64 per ounce, will go up drastically in about a year. As for copper, 5,257,000 ton's were mined in 1966. It's production is being increased about 5% annually. However, consumption exceeds production by about 100,000 ton a year. The recent Foreign refinery copper price in the U.S.A is $ 60 per pound. The supply of copper being insufficient to meet international demands, the price will go up and with no prospect of being lowered in the near future even with the slight annual increase in production. About 2,100,000 to 2,200,000 tons of lead are produced annually. Consumption exceeds production by about 50,000-60,000 tons annually. The current price of lead in New York is $ 155 per pound. As the supply of lead is internationally stable, It will be believed that there will be no significant change in its price in the near future. In 1967, 3,926,000 tons of Zinc were produced. There is annual increase of 4-7% in production. The annual consumption exceeds production by 100,000 to 200,000 tons. The current zinc price in the St. Louis market inthe U.S.A. is $ 145 per pound. Even though its supply is stable and sufficient world wide, the consumption rate will increase at a faster pace than before; hence, the price will slowly go up. Tungsten mines yield about 11,000 tons a year. Its production has been relatively constant in the past few years. The amount of its consumption increases slowly world wide, but in the free world· there has been a slight annual decrease. However, since Red China has not been exporting their tungsten to other countries for several months, the price on the London market of S.T.U. of $Wo_3$ has increased to $ 44~46. Should Red China begin to export actively again the price will drop to $ 40~42. In 1967, 56,000 tons of Molybdenum were produced. Production exceeds consumption by 200,000 -30,000 tons annually. The current price in the U.S.A. is $ 1.72 per Mo pound. Since the rate of production in the U.S.A. is on the increase with large amounts of ore reserve, the price of molubdenum should not go up.

• Proceedings of the Korean Society of Soil and Groundwater Environment Conference
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• 1997.11a
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• pp.3-31
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• 1997

Water has always played a significant role in the lives of people. In urbanised Rome, with its million people. sophisticated supply systems developed and then fled with the empire. only to be rediscovered later But it was the industrial Revolution commencing in the eighteenth century that ushered in major paradigm shifts In use and altitudes towards water. Rapid and concentrated urbanisation brought problems of expanded demands for drinking supplies, waste management and disease. The strategy of using water from local streams, springs and village wells collapsed under the onslaughts of rising urban demands and pollution due to poor waste disposal practices. Expanding travel (railways. and steamships) aided the spread of disease. In England. public health crises peaks, related to water-borne typhoid and the three major cholera outbreaks occurred in the late eighteenth and early nineteenth century respectively. Technological, engineering and institutional responses were successful in solving the public health problem. it is generally accepted that the putting of water into pipe networks both for a clean drinking supply, as well as using it as a transport medium for removal of human and other wastes, played a significant role in towering death rates due to waterborne diseases such as cholera and typhoid towards the end of the nineteenth century. Today, similar principles apply. A recent World Bank report Indicates that there can be upto 76％ reduction in illness when major water and sanitation improvements occur in developing countries. Water management, technology and thinking in Australia were relatively stable in the twentieth century up to the mid to late 1970s. Groundwater sources were investigated and developed for towns and agriculture. Dams were built, and pipe networks extended both for supply and waste water management. The management paradigms in Australia were essentially extensions of European strategies with the minor adaptions due to climate and hydrogeology. During the 1970s and 1980s in Australia, it was realised increasingly that a knowledge of groundwater and hydrogeological processes were critical to pollution prevention, the development of sound waste management and the problems of salinity. Many millions of dollars have been both saved and generated as a consequence. This is especially in relation to domestic waste management and the disposal of aluminium refinery waste in New South Wales. Major institutional changes in public sector water management are occurring in Australia. Upheveals and change have now reached ail states in Australia with various approaches being followed. Market thinking, corporatisation, privatisation, internationalisation, downsizing and environmental pressures are all playing their role in this paradigm shift. One casualty of this turmoil is the progressive erosion of the public sector skillbase and this may become a serious issue should a public health crisis occur such as a water borne disease. Such crises have arisen over recent times. A complete rethink of the urban water cycle is going on right now in Australia both at the State and Federal level. We are on the threshold of significant change in how we use and manage water, both as a supply and a waste transporter in Urban environments especially. Substantial replacement of the pipe system will be needed in 25 to 30 years time and this will cost billions of dollars. The competition for water between imgation needs and environmental requirements in Australia and overseas will continue to be an issue in rural areas. This will be especially heightened by the rising demand for irrigation produced food as the world's population grows. Rapid urbanisation and industrialisation in the emerging S.E Asian countries are currently producing considerable demands for water management skills and Infrastructure development. This trend e expected to grow. There are also severe water shortages in the Middle East to such an extent that wars may be fought over water issues. Environmental public health crises and shortages will help drive the trends.

• Korean Journal of Weed Science
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• v.30 no.4
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• pp.340-360
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• 2010

The depletion of fossil fuels, ecological problems associated with $CO_2$ emissions climate change, growing world population, and future energy supplies are forcing the development of alternative resources for energy (heat and electricity), transport fuels and chemicals: the replacement of fossil resources with $CO_2$ neutral biomass. Several options exist to cover energy supplies of the future, including solar, wind, and water power; however, chemical carbon source can get from biomass only. When used in combination with environmental friend production and processing technology, the use of biomass can be seen as a sustainable alternative to conventional chemical feedstocks. The biorefinery concept is analogous to today's petroleum refinery, which produce multiple fuels and chemical products from petroleum. A biorefinery is a facility that integrates biomass conversion processes and equipment to produce fuels, power, and value-added chemicals from biomass. Biorefinery is the co-production of a spectrum of bio-based products (food, feed, materials, and chemicals) and energy (fuels, power, and heat) from biomass [definition IEA Bioenergy Task 42]. By producing multiple products, a biorefinery takes advantage of the various components in biomass and their intermediates therefore maximizing the value derived from the biomass feedstocks. A biorefinery could, for example, produce one or several low-volume, but high-value, chemical or nutraceutical products and a low-value, but high-volume liquid transportation fuel such as biodiesel or bioethanol. Future biorefinery may play a major role in producing chemicals and materials as a bridge between agriculture and chemistry that are traditionally produced from petroleum. Industrial biotechnology is expected to significantly complement or replace the current petroleum-based industry and to play an important role.

• Environmental and Resource Economics Review
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• v.18 no.2
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• pp.279-309
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• 2009

Greenhouse gas emissions should be precisely forecast to reduce the emissions from industrial production processes. This study calculated the direct and indirect $CO_2$ emission intensities of 401 industries using the Input-Output tables 2003 and statistical data on the amount of energy use. This study had some limitations in drawing study findings because overseas data were used given the lack of domestic data. Other limiting factors included the oil distribution problems in the oil refinery sector, re-review of carbon neutral, and insufficient consideration of waste treatment. Nonetheless, this study is very meaningful since the direct and indirect $CO_2$ emission intensities of 401 industries were calculated. Specifically, this study considered from the zero-waste perspective the effects of waste, which attract interest worldwide since coke gas and gas from the steel industry are obtained as byproducts for the first time in Korea. According to the results of the analysis of $CO_2$ emission intensity per industry, typical industries whose indirect $CO_2$ emission intensity is high include crude steel making, Remicon, steel wire rods & track rail, cast iron, and iron reinforcing rods & bar steel. These industries produce products using the raw materials produced in the industrial sector whose $CO_2$ emission intensity is high. The representative industries whose direct $CO_2$ emission intensity is high include cement, pig iron, lime & plaster products, andcoal-based compounds. These industries extract raw ore from nature and refine them into raw materials that are useful in other industries. The findings in this study can be effectively used for the following case: estimation of target $CO_2$ emission reduction level reflecting each industrial sector's characteristics, calculation of potential emission reduction of each policy to reduce $CO_2$ emissions, identification of a firm's $CO_2$ emission level, and setting of the target level of emission reduction. Moreover, the findings in this study can be utilized widely in fields such as System of integrated Environmental and Economic Accounting(SEEA) and Material Flow Analysis(MFA) as the current topic of research in Korea.

• Economic and Environmental Geology
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• v.18 no.1
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• pp.65-92
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• 1985

A total of 12 mineral commodities significant in domestic output, economy and/or strategy of the Republic of Korea are chosen to examine the structural changes in production and demand-supply of these minerals during the last two decades of her industrialization. These include iron and manganese ores as the raw materials for iron and steel making, copper, zinc and tungsten ores among other non-ferrous metallic minerals, limestone (cement), kaolin, talc, pyrophyllite and graphite among other non-metallic minerals, and anthracite coal as the only domestic source of fossil energy. These are reviewed historically in time-series based on the statistical data which are tabulated and graphed in terms of domestic output, export, import, apparent demand-supply, its increasing rate, and self-sufficiency rate of each commodity. The increasing rates of demand-supply (IRDS) of some more important commodities are compared with those of Gross Domestic Production (GDP) and Economic Growth Rate (EGR) to evaluate how the IRDS contributed to the GDP and EGR. The major results revealed are as follows: Among the 12 commodities, the domestic output of 8 commodities appeared to have grown with steady upward trends: they are ores of lead, zinc and tungsten, limestone (cement), kaolin, talc, pyrophyllite and anthracite coal. Two commodities, ores of iron and copper, continued with unchanging or slightly declining trends and varied fluctuations, in spite of their cardinal importance to the heavy industry and strategy of Korea. The remaining two, graphite and manganese ore, have gradualy declined in domestic output in which the former has still enough resource potential but the latter has not and virtually ceased its domestic output. Trade patterns for mineral commodities in the Republic of Korea during the last two decades have changed greatly, being marked by a shift from mineral-exporting to mineral importing, mainly because of increasing consumption of mineral raw materials for industrialization rather than beceuse of decreasing output of domestic mineral commodities in quantity. In terms of trade patterns, the 12 commodities concerned in this study can be classified into the following four groups. The 1st group - ores of lead and tungsten have only been exported without imports. The 2nd group - amorphous graphite, and pyrophyllite have mainly been exported but partly been imported. The 3rd group - kaolin, talc and crystalline graphite have equally been exported and imported, but quantity of imports have rapidly been increased with time. The 4th group - ores of iron, manganese and zinc have shifted from exports to imports during the industrialization, particularly owing to the initiation of iron and steel making by the Pohang Iron and Steel Company in the middle 1970' s and the new establishment of the Onsan Zinc Refinery in the late 1970' s. All of the 12 commodities under considerations were far above 100% in self-sufficiency rate before or in the early 1960' s. Recently, however, most of them have been declined to below 100% except for those of limestone (cement) and pyrophyllite. It is particularly serious to identify that the self-sufficiency rates of the three important metallic minerals, iron, copper and manganese ores in 1982 appeared to be 5.1%, 0.5%, and 0.01%, respectively. The average self-sufficiency rate of the total domestic minerals produced in 1982 was 14.4% (in value) for that year. Mining industry appeared to be extremely high in its intermediate demand rate whereas its intermediate input rate to be quite low indicating that mineral raw materials have been exerted strong forward linkage effects upon the other industries rather than backward linkage effects. In comparing the curves of increasing rates of demand-supply of several major minerals - iron ore, manganese ore, copper ore, limestone (cement), kaolin, and anthracite coal - with those of Gross Domestic Production and Economic Growth Rate drawn on every graph, it is clearly shown that the curves of increasing rates of demand-supply comprise around 6 to 7 periods of cycles which roughly harmonious with those of the curves of GDP and EGR, except for the curve of anthracite coal of which the configuration seems to have resulted from the (artificial) government's mineral policy rather than from economic free market mechanism. The harmonic feature of these curves well suggests that the increasing rates of demand-supply of major minerals have been significantly contributed to the GDP and EGR. In addition, the wider amplitudes of the iron, manganese and copper curves than those of the limestone (cement) and kaolin curves indicate that the contribution of the former, metallic commodities, has been greater than that of the latter, non-metallic commodities.

• Journal of Radiation Protection and Research
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• v.33 no.1
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• pp.13-20
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• 2008

The flow rate measurements in a multi-phase flow pipeline were evaluated quantitatively by means of a clamp-on sealed radioisotope based on a cross correlation signal processing technique. The flow rates were calculated by a determination of the transit time between two sealed gamma sources by using a cross correlation function following FFT filtering, then corrected with vapor fraction in the pipeline which was measured by the ${\gamma}$-ray attenuation method. The pipeline model was manufactured by acrylic resin(ID. 8 cm, L=3.5 m, t=10 mm), and the multi-phase flow patterns were realized by an injection of compressed $N_2$ gas. Two sealed gamma sources of $^{137}Cs$ (E=0.662 MeV, ${\Gamma}$ $factor=0.326\;R{\cdot}h^{-1}{\cdot}m^2{\cdot}Ci^{-1}$) of 20 mCi and 17 mCi, and radiation detectors of $2"{\times}2"$ NaI(Tl) scintillation counter (Eberline, SP-3) were used for this study. Under the given conditions(the distance between two sources: 4D(D; inner diameter), N/S ratio: $0.12{\sim}0.15$, sampling time ${\Delta}t$: 4msec), the measured flow rates showed the maximum. relative error of 1.7 % when compared to the real ones through the vapor content corrections($6.1\;%{\sim}9.2\;%$). From a subsequent experiment, it was proven that the closer the distance between the two sealed sources is, the more precise the measured flow rates are. Provided additional studies related to the selection of radioisotopes their activity, and an optimization of the experimental geometry are carried out, it is anticipated that a radioisotope application for flow rate measurements can be used as an important tool for monitoring multi-phase facilities belonging to petrochemical and refinery industries and contributes economically in the light of maintenance and control of them.

• Korean Journal of Plant Resources
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• v.27 no.1
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• pp.60-71
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• 2014

This study was conducted to identify the potential of rape stalk as a raw material for biorefinery process of rape flower. At first, rape stalk (RS) was immersed in distilled water (DW), acetic acid (AA), oxalic acid (OA), sulfuric acid (SA) and sodium hydroxide (SH) solutions, and the content of reducing sugars liberated from immersed RS was analyzed. Glucose, xylose, arabinose and sucrose were detected varying with the immersion type. In particular, 1% AA-immersion of RS for 72 hr was the most effective conditions to liberate glucose from RS. Secondly, the RS residues were used for elementary analysis and fabrication of fuel pellets. In addition to the solution type, concentration of immersion solutions (0%, 1%, 2%) and immersion time (24, 72, 120 hr) were used as experimental factors. The contents of nitrogen, sulfur and chlorine reduced effectively through the immersion of RS in DW, AA and OA solutions. For properties of RS-based pellets, bulk density and higher heating value of RS-based pellets greatly increased with the immersion of RS, and the qualities were much higher than those of the A-grade pellet of the EN standards. Ash content decreased remarkably through the immersion of RS, and was satisfied with the A-grade pellet standard. Durability was negatively affected by the immersion of RS, and did not reached to B-grade of the EN standard. In conclusion, acid immersion of RS can be a pretreatment method for the production of fuel pellet and bioethanol, but use of the immersed RS for the production of high-quality pellets might be restricted due to low durability of immersed-RS pellets. Therefore, further studies, such as investigation of detailed immersion conditions, fabrication of mixed pellets with wooden materials and addition of binders, are needed to resolve the problems.

• The Korean Journal of Petroleum Geology
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• v.14 no.1
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• pp.1-11
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• 2008

As conventional oil and gas reservoirs become depleted, interests for oil sands has rapidly increased in the last decade. Oil sands are mixture of bitumen, water, and host sediments of sand and clay. Most oil sand is unconsolidated sand that is held together by bitumen. Bitumen has hydrocarbon in situ viscosity of >10,000 centipoises (cP) at reservoir condition and has API gravity between $8-14^{\circ}$. The largest oil sand deposits are in Alberta and Saskatchewan, Canada. The reverves are approximated at 1.7 trillion barrels of initial oil-in-place and 173 billion barrels of remaining established reserves. Alberta has a number of oil sands deposits which are grouped into three oil sand development areas - the Athabasca, Cold Lake, and Peace River, with the largest current bitumen production from Athabasca. Principal oil sands deposits consist of the McMurray Fm and Wabiskaw Mbr in Athabasca area, the Gething and Bluesky formations in Peace River area, and relatively thin multi-reservoir deposits of McMurray, Clearwater, and Grand Rapid formations in Cold Lake area. The reservoir sediments were deposited in the foreland basin (Western Canada Sedimentary Basin) formed by collision between the Pacific and North America plates and the subsequent thrusting movements in the Mesozoic. The deposits are underlain by basement rocks of Paleozoic carbonates with highly variable topography. The oil sands deposits were formed during the Early Cretaceous transgression which occurred along the Cretaceous Interior Seaway in North America. The oil-sands-hosting McMurray and Wabiskaw deposits in the Athabasca area consist of the lower fluvial and the upper estuarine-offshore sediments, reflecting the broad and overall transgression. The deposits are characterized by facies heterogeneity of channelized reservoir sands and non-reservoir muds. Main reservoir bodies of the McMurray Formation are fluvial and estuarine channel-point bar complexes which are interbedded with fine-grained deposits formed in floodplain, tidal flat, and estuarine bay. The Wabiskaw deposits (basal member of the Clearwater Formation) commonly comprise sheet-shaped offshore muds and sands, but occasionally show deep-incision into the McMurray deposits, forming channelized reservoir sand bodies of oil sands. In Canada, bitumen of oil sands deposits is produced by surface mining or in-situ thermal recovery processes. Bitumen sands recovered by surface mining are changed into synthetic crude oil through extraction and upgrading processes. On the other hand, bitumen produced by in-situ thermal recovery is transported to refinery only through bitumen blending process. The in-situ thermal recovery technology is represented by Steam-Assisted Gravity Drainage and Cyclic Steam Stimulation. These technologies are based on steam injection into bitumen sand reservoirs for increase in reservoir in-situ temperature and in bitumen mobility. In oil sands reservoirs, efficiency for steam propagation is controlled mainly by reservoir geology. Accordingly, understanding of geological factors and characteristics of oil sands reservoir deposits is prerequisite for well-designed development planning and effective bitumen production. As significant geological factors and characteristics in oil sands reservoir deposits, this study suggests (1) pay of bitumen sands and connectivity, (2) bitumen content and saturation, (3) geologic structure, (4) distribution of mud baffles and plugs, (5) thickness and lateral continuity of mud interbeds, (6) distribution of water-saturated sands, (7) distribution of gas-saturated sands, (8) direction of lateral accretion of point bar, (9) distribution of diagenetic layers and nodules, and (10) texture and fabric change within reservoir sand body.