• Journal of Ginseng Research
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• 제33권4호
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• pp.316-323
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• 2009

인삼 사포닌은 면역계에 다양한 약리 효과를 발휘한다. 20(S)-프로토파낙사다이올 (PPD) 및 20(S)- 프로토파낙사트리올 (PPT)은 장내 세균에 의하여 생성되는 인삼 대사체의 일종이며 생체 내 투여 시 순환계에서 탐지된다. 활성화된 비만 세포로부터의 염증 매개체 유리에 미치는 20(S)-프로토파낙사다이올 (PPD) 및 20(S)-프로토파낙사트리올 (PPT)의 영향을 평가하였다. 인삼 사포닌 대사체를 처치 후, 히스타민 유리는 활성화된 해명 폐 비만세포에서 평가하였으며, 인터루킨-4, 인터루킨-8, 및 종양괴사인자-알파 유리는 HMC-1 비만세포에서 평가하였다. 결과는 다음과 같다. PPT는 최고 $100\;{\mu}M$ 농도에서 PMA에 의하여 자극된 HMC-1 세포로부터의 인터루킨-4 유리를 완전히 차단하였다. 또한, 이는 HMC-1 세포로부터의 인터루킨-8의 유리를, PMA와 DMSO동시 처치 시얻어진 수치를 기준으로 대략 40-50% 정도 억제하였다. PPD는 최고 $100\;{\mu}M$ 농도에서 해명 폐 비만세포로부터의 히스타민 유리를 초래하였으나 통계적 유의성은 없었다. PPD는 HMC-1 세포에 PMA와 DMSO 동시 처치 시 얻어진 수치를 기준으로 할 때, 인터루킨-4의 유리를 대략 89% 정도 억제하였으나, 인터루킨-8의 유리에는 유의적인 효과를 초래하지 않았다. 그러나 PPD 및 PPT 모두, PMA에 의하여 자극된 HMC-1 세포로부터의 종양괴사 인자-알파의 유리에는 전혀 효과를 나타내지 않았다. 그러므로 본 연구 결과는 PPD와 PPT가 경구로 투여된 인삼 추출물의 면역조절 작용을 담당하는 장내 인삼 대사체 중의 한 종류임을 제시한다.

• Journal of Ginseng Research
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• 제44권3호
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• pp.475-482
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• 2020

Background: Active natural ingredients, especially small molecules, have recently received wide attention as modifiers used to treat neurodegenerative disease by promoting neurogenic regeneration of neural stem cell (NSC) in situ. 20(S)-protopanaxadiol (PPD), one of the bioactive ingredients in ginseng, possesses neuroprotective properties. However, the effect of PPD on NSC proliferation and differentiation and its mechanism of action are incompletely understood. Methods: In this study, we investigated the impact of PPD on NSC proliferation and neuronal lineage differentiation through activation of the Wnt/glycogen synthase kinase (GSK)-3β/β-catenin pathway. NSC migration and proliferation were investigated by neurosphere assay, Cell Counting Kit-8 assay, and EdU assay. NSC differentiation was analyzed by Western blot and immunofluorescence staining. Involvement of the Wnt/GSK3β/β-catenin pathway was examined by molecular simulation and Western blot and verified using gene transfection. Results: PPD significantly promoted neural migration and induced a significant increase in NSC proliferation in a time- and dose-dependent manner. Furthermore, a remarkable increase in anti-microtubule-associated protein 2 expression and decrease in nestin protein expression were induced by PPD. During the differentiation process, PPD targeted and stimulated the phosphorylation of GSK-3β at Ser9 and the active forms of β-catenin, resulting in activation of the Wnt/GSK-3β/β-catenin pathway. Transfection of NSCs with a constitutively active GSK-3β mutant at S9A significantly hampered the proliferation and neural differentiation mediated by PPD. Conclusion: PPD promotes NSC proliferation and neural differentiation in vitro via activation of the Wnt/GSK-3β/β-catenin pathway by targeting GSK-3β, potentially having great significance for the treatment of neurodegenerative diseases.

• 대한수의학회지
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• 제29권3호
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• pp.283-289
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• 1989

In order to measure in vitro cell mediated immunity in the guinea pigs sensitized with the killed bacilli of Mycobacterium bovis ($AN_5$), M avium (serotype 2), M tuberculosis and M intracellulare (serotype 8), leukocyte adherence inhibition (LAI) test was established using the antigens of purified protein derivatives (PPD) tuberculin. By using LAI test, specificity of cell-mediated immune responses of the guinea pigs inoculated with various Mycobacterium spp was investigated, and comparison between values of LAI and skin test was also made to evaluate the specificity of the newly designed test. The results obtained throughout the experiments were summarized as follows; 1. The optimal concentration of PPD antigens for LAI test was 1 to 2mg per ml of medium. 2. When the leukocytes of guinea pigs sensitized with both M bovis($AN_5$) and M avium (serotype 2) for 2 to 8 weeks were incubated with homologous or heterologous PPD antigens, mean values of LAI test were $61.2{\pm}11.2$ and $65.6{\pm}5.1%$ in homologous PPD antigens respectively, while $30.0{\pm}3.7$ and $32.8{\pm}5.7%$ in heteNlogous PPD antigens, showing the prominently high value of LAI in the homologous syst,em (p<0.01). 3. When the leukocytes of guinea pigs sensitized with both M tuberculosis and M intracellulare (serotype 8) for 2 to 8 weeks were incubated with homologous and heterologous PPD antigens, mean values of LAI test were $67.9{\pm}2.9$ and $66.9{\pm}5.0%$ in homologous PPD antigens, while $27.4{\pm}7.4$ and $24.4{\pm}7.1%$ in heterologous PPD antigens, showing the prominently high value of LAI in the homologous system (p<0.01). 4. Comparing with the specificity of LAI and skin tests on the basis of the value obtained from the homologous system, deviation of reaction was revealed to be 49.5 to 100.2 in LAI test, and -15.9 to 52.0 in skin test.

• IMMUNE NETWORK
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• 제3권3호
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• pp.235-241
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• 2003

Background: The protective immunity against tuberculosis (TB) involves both CD4+ T cells and CD8+ T cells. In our previous study, we defined four Mycobacterium tuberculosis derived peptide epitopes specific for HLA-$A^*0201$ restricted CD8+ T cells ($ThyA_{30-38}$, $RpoB_{127-135}$, $85B_{15-23}$, $PstA1_{75-83}$). In this study, we investigated the immune responses induced by these peptide specific CD8+ T cells in latently and chronically infected people with TB. Methods: We characterized these peptide specific CD8+ T cell population present in PBMC of both TB patients and PPD+healthy people using IFN-${\gamma}$elispot assay, intracellular staining and HLA-A2 dimer staining. Results: The frequency of peptide specific CD8+ T cell was in the range of 1 to 25 in $1.7{\times}10^5$ PBMC based on ex vivo IFN-${\gamma}$ elispot assay, demonstrating that these peptide specific CD8+ T cell responses are induced in both TB patients and PPD+ people. Short term cell lines (STCL) specific for these peptides proliferated in vitro and secreted IFN-${\gamma}$ upon antigenic stimulation in PPD+ donors. Lastly, HLA-$A^*0201$ dimer assays indicated that $PstA1_{75-83}$ specific CD8+ T cell population in PPD+ healthy donors is heterogeneous since approximately 25~33% of $PstA1_{75-83}$ specific CD8+ T cell population in PPD+ healthy donors produced IFN-${\gamma}$ upon peptide stimulation. Conclusion: Our results suggest that MHC class I restricted CD8+ T cell mediated immune responses to M. tuberculosis infection are induced in both TB patients and PPD + people; however, the CD8+ T cell population is functionally heterogeneous.

• 대한화학회지
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• 제18권5호
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• pp.381-388
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• 1974

p-Phenylenediamine(PPD) 및 m-aminophenol(MAP)를 몰비를 달리하면서, -5∼0$^{\circ}$, $N_2$ 기류중에서 일정량의 포르말린(이때 포름알데히드의 량은 PPD와 MAP 전량에 대하여 2배몰에 해당하는 량으로 고정)과 반응시키면 약간의 발열과 함께 급격히 부가축합이 진행되어 난용성인 갈색 내지 등색의 중합체를 생성한다. PPD:MAP의 몰비가 1:3, 1:2, 1:1의 것들을 180∼220에서 몰비가 2:1, 3:1의 것들을 250∼270$^{\circ}$에서 각각 암색으로 색변화를 이르킬 따름이며, 이 중합체들은 모두 300$^{\circ}$까지 용융하지 않는다. 이들 중합체의 메틸렌블루에 대한 흡착력은 N2 기류중에서 중합시킨것을 묽은(7%) 수산화나트륨으로 처리하였을때 현저히 흡착력이 증가되어 PPD-MAP-F(F;포름알데히드)의 몰비가 1:3:8 일때 수지 1g당 80mg의 메틸렌블루를 흡착하며, 브롬페놀블루에대한 흡착력은 PPD-MAP-F의 몰비가 2:1:6일때가 최고이며, 수지 1g당 250mg의 브롬페놀블루를 흡착한다. TGA에 의한 내열성실험에서는 PPD-MAP-F의 몰비가 1:3:8인 경우 가장 좋은 결과를 나타냈으며, $N_2$ 기류중 매분 2$^{\circ}$로 가열하였을때 900$^{\circ}$에서 45%의 중량손실을 나타내었다.

• Journal of Ginseng Research
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• 제41권3호
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• pp.392-402
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• 2017

Background: Previously, we reported that Korean Red Ginseng inhibited liver fibrosis in mice and reduced the expressions of fibrogenic genes in hepatic stellate cells (HSCs). The present study was undertaken to identify the major ginsenoside responsible for reducing the numbers of HSCs and the underlying mechanism involved. Methods: Using LX-2 cells (a human immortalized HSC line) and primary activated HSCs, MTT (3-(4,5-dimethylthiazol-2-yl)-2,5-diphenyl-tetrazolium bromide) assays were conducted to examine the cytotoxic effects of ginsenosides. $H_2O_2$ productions, glutathione contents, lactate dehydrogenase activities, mitochondrial membrane permeabilities, apoptotic cell subpopulations, caspase-3/-7 activities, transferase dUTP nick end labeling (TUNEL) staining, and immunoblot analysis were performed to elucidate the molecular mechanism responsible for ginsenoside-mediated cytotoxicity. Involvement of the AMP-activated protein kinase (AMPK)-related signaling pathway was examined using a chemical inhibitor and small interfering RNA (siRNA) transfection. Results and conclusion: Of the 11 ginsenosides tested, 20S-protopanaxadiol (PPD) showed the most potent cytotoxic activity in both LX-2 cells and primary activated HSCs. Oxidative stress-mediated apoptosis induced by 20S-PPD was blocked by N-acetyl-$\text\tiny L$-cysteine pretreatment. In addition, 20S-PPD concentration-dependently increased the phosphorylation of AMPK, and compound C prevented 20S-PPD-induced cytotoxicity and mitochondrial dysfunction. Moreover, 20S-PPD increased the phosphorylation of liver kinase B1 (LKB1), an upstream kinase of AMPK. Likewise, transfection of LX-2 cells with LKB1 siRNA reduced the cytotoxic effect of 20S-PPD. Thus, 20S-PPD appears to induce HSC apoptosis by activating LKB1-AMPK and to be a therapeutic candidate for the prevention or treatment of liver fibrosis.

• Journal of Ginseng Research
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• 제45권4호
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• pp.465-472
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• 2021

Background: Ginseng can help regulate brain excitability, promote learning and memory, and resist cerebral ischemia in the central nervous system. Ginsenosides are the major effective compounds of Ginseng, but their protein targets in the brain have not been determined. Methods: We screened proteins that interact with the main components of ginseng (ginsenosides) by affinity chromatography and identified the 14-3-3 ζ protein as a potential target of ginsenosides in brain tissues. Results: Biolayer interferometry (BLI) analysis showed that 20(S)-protopanaxadiol (PPD), a ginseng saponin metabolite, exhibited the highest direct interaction to the 14-3-3 ζ protein. Subsequently, BLI kinetics analysis and isothermal titration calorimetry (ITC) assay showed that PPD specifically bound to the 14-3-3 ζ protein. The cocrystal structure of the 14-3-3 ζ protein-PPD complex showed that the main interactions occurred between the residues R56, R127, and Y128 of the 14-3-3 ζ protein and a portion of PPD. Moreover, mutating any of the above residues resulted in a significant decrease of affinity between PPD and the 14-3-3 ζ protein. Conclusion: Our results indicate the 14-3-3 ζ protein is the target of PPD, a ginsenoside metabolite. Crystallographic and mutagenesis studies suggest a direct interaction between PPD and the 14-3-3 ζ protein. This finding can help in the development of small-molecular compounds that bind to the 14-3-3 ζ protein on the basis of the structure of dammarane-type triterpenoid.

• Journal of Ginseng Research
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• 제46권5호
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• pp.666-674
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• 2022

Background: Ginsenosides and their metabolites have antidepressant-like effects, but the underlying mechanisms remain unclear. We previously identified 14-3-3 ζ as one of the target proteins of 20 (S)-protopanaxadiol (PPD), a fully deglycosylated ginsenoside metabolite. Methods: Corticosterone (CORT) was administered repeatedly to induce the depression model, and PPD was given concurrently. The tail suspension test (TST) and the forced swimming test (FST) were used for behavioral evaluation. All mice were sacrificed. Golgi-cox staining, GSK 3β activity assay, and Western blot analysis were performed. In vitro, the kinetic binding analysis with the Biolayer Interferometry (BLI) was used to determine the molecular interactions. Results: TST and FST both revealed that PPD reversed CORT-induced behavioral deficits. PPD also ameliorated the CORT-induced expression alterations of hippocampal Ser9 phosphorylated glycogen synthase kinase 3β (p-Ser9 GSK 3β), Ser133 phosphorylated cAMP response element-binding protein (p-Ser133 CREB), and brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF). Moreover, PPD attenuated the CORT-induced increase in GSK 3β activity and decrease in dendritic spine density in the hippocampus. In vitro, 14-3-3 ζ protein specifically bound to p-Ser9 GSK 3β polypeptide. PPD promoted the binding and subsequently decreased GSK 3β activity. Conclusion: These findings demonstrated the antidepressant-like effects of PPD on the CORT-induced mouse depression model and indicated a possible target-based mechanism. The combination of PPD with the 14-3-3 ζ protein may promote the binding of 14-3-3 ζ to p-GSK 3β (Ser9) and enhance the inhibition of Ser9 phosphorylation on GSK 3β kinase activity, thereby activating the plasticity-related CREBeBDNF signaling pathway.

• Journal of Ginseng Research
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• 제47권5호
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• pp.662-671
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• 2023

Background: 20(S)-protopanaxadiol (PPD), a ginsenoside metabolite, has prominent benefits for the central nervous system, especially in improving learning and memory. However, its transcriptional targets in brain tissue remain unknown. Methods: In this study, we first used mass spectrometry-based drug affinity responsive target stability (DARTS) to identify the potential proteins of ginsenosides and intersected them with the transcription factor library. Second, the transcription factor PURA was confirmed as a target of PPD by biolayer interferometry (BLI) and molecular docking. Next, the effect of PPD on the transcriptional levels of target genes of PURA in brain tissues was determined by qRT-PCR. Finally, bioinformatics analysis was used to analyze the potential biological features of these target proteins. Results: The results showed three overlapping transcription factors between the proteomics of DARTS and transcription factor library. BLI analysis further showed that PPD had a higher direct interaction with PURA than parent ginsenosides. Subsequently, BLI kinetic analysis, molecular docking, and mutations in key amino acids of PURA indicated that PPD specifically bound to PURA. The results of qRT-PCR showed that PPD could increase the transcription levels of PURA target genes in brain. Finally, bioinformatics analysis showed that these target proteins were involved in learning and memory function. Conclusion: The above-mentioned findings indicate that PURA is a transcription target of PPD in brain, and PPD upregulate the transcription levels of target genes related to cognitive dysfunction by binding PURA, which could provide a chemical and biological basis for the study of treating cognitive impairment by targeting PURA.

• Tuberculosis and Respiratory Diseases
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• 제61권3호
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• pp.239-247
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• 2006

연구배경: Mycobacteria 배양액 여과 단백질은 결핵에 대한 세포성 면역반응 및 진단 연구에 중요한 역할을 하는 것으로 알려져 있다. 새로운 결핵균 특이 유전자를 클로닝하여 약 14-kDa의 결핵균 재조합 단백질(TB-14)을 분리 정제 한 뒤 전혈 배양(whole blood culture)을 통해 재조합 단백질 항원의 자극에 따른 IFN-${\gamma}$ 분비 유도를 PPD와 비교 측정하여 TB-14 단백질이 결핵균에 대한 숙주의 세포성 면역반응 유도에 어떤 역할을 하는 지를 알아보고자 하였다. 방 법: M. avium 배양 여과액에서 항혈청과 강하게 반응하는 하나의 M. avium 특이 단백질을 확인하여 아미노산 서열을 규명한 뒤 이 단백질과 높은 상동성을 나타내는 M. tuberculosis 유전자를 클로닝하여 다량의 결핵균 재조합 단백질(TB-14)을 분리 정제하였다. 재조합 단백질 TB-14에 대한 세포성 면역 반응 유도를 알아보기 위해 결핵 환자(9명), PPD 양성 정상인(7명) 및 PPD 음성 정상인(7명)들로부터 얻은 전혈(whole blood)를 RPMI로 희석한 뒤 $10{\mu}g$의 PPD와 TB-14 단백질로 48 시간 동안 자극하여 상층액에 분비된 IFN-${\gamma}$ 농도를 ELISA로 측정하였다. 결 과: 1. M. avium LR114F 균주의 배양 여과액 내에서 M. intracellulare 항혈청에 강하게 반응하는 새로운 M. avium 특이 단백질을 규명하여 아미노산 서열을 확인하였다. 2. M. avium 특이 단백질과 상동성을 보이는 M. tuberculosis 특이 재조합 단백질인 TB-14은 148개의 아미노산으로 구성되어 있고 30개의 아미노산으로 이루어진 signal peptides를 가지며 M. avium과 78%의 상동성을 보였다. 3. PPD 양성인의 전혈 배양에서 TB-14 단백질 항원으로 자극된 군에서 PPD로 자극된 군보다 월등히 높은 IFN-${\gamma}$ 분비를 나타내었다. 반면 결핵환자에서는 질환의 양상이나 치료 정도에 따라 IFN-${\gamma}$의 분비 양상이 일정하지 않았다. 결 론: 새로운 결핵균 특이 재조합 단백질 TB-14는 결핵에 대한 인체 내 세포성 면역반응 유도에 중요한 역할을 할 수 있는 단백질이라 생각되며 특히 PPD 양성자에서 높은 IFN-${\gamma}$의 분비 양상을 보여 정상인과 결핵 감염자의 감별진단에도 활용될 수 있으리라 생각된다. 또한 TB-14 단백질에 대한 항혈청을 제작하여 환자의 가검물에 분비되는 결핵균 특이 단백질을 탐색하는 결핵의 진단 연구에도 활용될 수 있을 것으로 사료된다.